Student Attitudes Research Articles

An Investigation of the Relationship between Secondary School Students' Visual Literacy Levels and their Attitudes towards Digital Images

Living in a world rich in digital images requires students and educators to have more visual literacy skills. The aim of this study is to examine the attitudes and visual literacy of secondary school students towards digital images on a relational basis. 188 secondary school students from two private schools in Türkiye participated in the study conducted with the comparative relational screening model. ‘Visual Literacy Scale’ and ‘Attitude Towards Digital Images Scale’ were used to collect the research data. Descriptive statistics, Independent T test and Pearson Correlation Coefficient Techniques were used in the analysis of the study data. According to the research findings, the attitudes and visual literacy of the participating secondary school students towards digital images were found to be high. The attitudes and visual literacy of secondary school students towards digital images differ according to the gender variable. Finally, significant and positive relationships were found between the attitudes of secondary school students towards digital images and their visual literacy.

Implementation of Augmented Reality Media in Physics Learning to Develop Students' Cognitive Abilities: A Systematic Literature Review

Augmented reality as a learning media has the ability to explain physics concepts contextually and concretely to students in three dimensions, so this study aims to identify the trend that influence the use of augmented reality Media in physics learning on the cognitive abilities of students. This research is composed of the results of a synthesis of the findings of previous research articles that are relevant in the 2017-2022 period. This study adapted systematic literature review method with Publish or Perish software, then filtered and extracted data according to the criteria for the research objectives to produce 47 relevant articles and compiled using PRISMA Protocol. From the results of several research syntheses, it was found that the use of augmented reality in physics learning can improve students' cognitive abilities which include self-efficacy, conceptual understanding, critical thinking, high order thinking, visual representation, abstract thinking, scientific literacy, creative thinking, computational thinking, reasoning and problem solving. In addition, the use of augmented reality media provides optimal learning outcomes for students and has a positive influence on affective abilities. Future research is expected to be able to present in depth the influence of augmented reality media in physics learning to develop students' affective abilities and attitudes.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of AI-Powered Adaptive Learning Systems in Secondary Schools

The main aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of an AI-based adaptive learning system in increasing the learners' accomplishment in Saudi Arabian secondary schools. To ensure authenticity of the research, the study employed a quasi-experimental approach in which two schools and 40 students were employed to assess the impact of the adaptive learning intervention on the students' learning, engagement and attitudes. The findings showed that the use of the AI system improved students' performance, especially in terms of low performers and student satisfaction. However, at the same time, the study highlighted the problems associated with technological enhancement, the teachers' readiness, and the students' information technology literacy that have to be addressed to enhance the efficient and equitable use of such technologies in learning. This study can benefit Saudi Arabian policymakers and educators by enabling them to optimize the application of AI-based adaptive learning for the improvement of the educational system.

Fostering Cultural Awareness and Academic Engagement through Poetry Analysis in Kazakh Educational Contexts

This study investigated the effects of activity-based and traditional analysis methods on students’ attitudes toward poetry, academic achievement, and cultural identity. A pre-test-post-test control group experimental design—a quantitative research method—was employed. The class using activity-based analysis methods for poetry analysis was designated as the experimental group, while the class following the traditional analysis method served as the control group. Participants were second-year students from the Kazakh Literature Department at a university in Almaty, Kazakhstan. The study spanned eight weeks and involved 18 female and 15 male students in the experimental group, with 17 female and 15 male students in the control group. All students provided informed consent to participate voluntarily. The Scale of Attitude toward Poetry, Poetry Analysis Skills Academic Achievement Test, and Cultural Identity Perception Scale were administered to measure the study variables. The findings revealed that activity-based analysis methods positively impacted students’ attitudes toward poetry, with the experimental group demonstrating a more favorable approach than the control group. Additionally, students in the experimental group achieved higher academic performance in poetry analysis skills than those in the control group. Although both groups showed a general improvement in their cultural identity perception, no significant difference was found between them. These results support the potential of activity-based approaches in poetry education to increase student achievement and attitudes. Consequently, integrating such methods should be actively encouraged in future educational practices.

Middle School Students Attitudes Toward Educational Counseling Services Provided in Jordanian Schools

This study aimed to identify the attitudes of middle school students towards the educational counselling services provided in Jordanian schools and to reveal whether their attitudes towards the counselling services are affected by the variables of gender and place of residence. It also sought to predict middle school students' attitudes toward the counselling services provided in Jordanian schools through the study's psychometric and demographic variables. A total of (820) male and female middle school students in Jordanian schools participated in the study during the second semester of the academic year (2023/2024) and were selected using a random method. The study tool (questionnaire) was applied to measure students' attitudes toward the counselling services provided. The study findings revealed that students' attitudes towards the counselling process ranked highest, followed by their attitudes towards the counsellor (second place) and the counselee (third place). Regarding the study samples' overall performance on the study tool, they exhibit a typically positive attitude towards the educational counselling services offered in Jordanian schools. Furthermore, it was found that there were statistically significant differences between the averages of the participants' attitudes towards the educational counselling services provided in Jordanian schools attributable to the variable of the place of residence favouring the category of those residing in (the village). No significant statistical gender differences between the averages of the participants' attitudes towards the educational counselling services provided in Jordanian schools were observed. Finally, based on the results of this study and the literature reviewed, the researcher proposed a set of practical procedures to be applied. Received: 14 July 2024 / Accepted: 27 October 2024 / Published: 05 November 2024

Students' Readiness and Perceptions of Autonomous Learning: A Case Study of UMI students

This paper aims to investigate the readiness and perceptions of students towards autonomous learning at the Faculty of Arts, Moulay Ismail University, Meknes, English Department, a concept that emphasizes learner independence and self-regulation in the educational process. As educational paradigms shift towards more student-centered approaches, understanding how prepared students are for such autonomy is crucial for successful implementation. This case study uses a mixed-methods approach, combining surveys and interviews to assess students' self-efficacy, motivation, and attitudes towards independent learning. It involves 120 participants, the research focuses on the impact of demographic variables such as age, gender, and educational background on students' readiness and attitudes, the factors influencing their readiness for autonomous learning, their perceptions of the benefits and challenges of autonomous learning compared to traditional learning, and the relationship between self-efficacy and perceived readiness. The findings reveal varying levels of readiness among students, influenced by factors such as prior learning experiences, access to resources, and personal motivation. While a significant portion of students express enthusiasm for the flexibility and empowerment associated with autonomous learning, others indicate concerns about the challenges it presents, including time management and the need for self-discipline. The study concludes by discussing the implications for curriculum design and the support structures necessary to enhance students' readiness for autonomous learning at UMI.

Can virtual reality technology be used for empathy education in medical students: a randomized case-control study

BackgroundEmpathy is an important factor in the doctor-patient relationship, but mental illness is more difficult to understand than other diseases. Besides traditional skills, virtual reality (VR) has been identified as a promising tool in empathy education. This study aimed to investigate the ability of empathy enhancement, the feasibility of depression education, and the changes in thoughts and attitudes in medical students through a single VR experience.MethodsWe recruited medical students and randomly assigned them to two groups based on their completed Interpersonal Response Index scores. Two sets of VR systems were provided; the intervention group experienced the daily life of the depressed medical student, while the control group experienced the general medical student scenario. The improvement of empathy was assessed using the Jefferson Scale of Empathy-Health Professional Students (JSE-HPS), and the change of attitude was assessed through the Implicit Association Test. In addition, other questionnaires were used to evaluate the user experience of this VR system, and correlation analysis was conducted to examine the association between the use of VR and changes in the JSE and IAT scores.ResultsA total of 59 medical students were enrolled in this study. The intervention group showed a significant increase in the perspective-taking (pre: mean 5.817, SD 0.536; post: mean 5.947, SD 0.620; P = .03) and compassionate care (pre: mean 5.546, SD 0.581; post: mean 5.721, SD 0.629; P = .01) domains of the JSE score and a significant decrease in the standing in the patient’s shoes (SP) domain (pre: mean 3.583, SD 1.253; post: mean 2.967, SD 1.252; P = .002). The Pearson correlation analysis found a significant positive correlation between the JSE score with immersion aspect (r = .308, P = .049) and presence aspect (r = .415, P = .01), and we also found a significant negative correlation between the IAT score and presence aspect (r=-.333, P = .04).ConclusionsThis study is the first randomized case-control study to investigate the effect of two different versions of VR on empathy development toward depression for medical students. Although the single VR experience was unable to induce a great improvement in empathy or attitude, the VR system could help medical students enhance their understanding of depressive disorders.Trial registrationThis trial was retrospectively registered in the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) (21/03/2024, ACTRN12624000297527). https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=386683&isReview=true.

Sex Education in the Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy in Lambayeque

Comprehensive sexual education (CSE) seeks to prepare adolescents for a safe and healthy life. This study evaluated the effectiveness of sexual education programs in preventing adolescent pregnancy in Lambayeque, with a focus on their impact on reducing the rate of adolescent pregnancy, barriers and opportunities to improve sexual education in the region, the methodology, a bibliographic review was carried out and public health statistics were analyzed, the results eighty-five percent of students said their understanding of STD prevention and contraceptive techniques had significantly increased. This result is in line with research that demonstrate how well-designed educational initiatives can greatly increase young people's awareness of and ability to abstain from harmful sexual conduct. Additionally, 70% of respondents showed more positive attitudes toward contraceptive use, compared to 50% before the program was implemented. This change in attitudes is consistent with research indicating that comprehensive sexuality education can change attitudes toward contraception and promote safer sexual behaviors, disparities in the implementation and reach of sexual education programs in Lambayeque explain the differences in students' knowledge and attitudes. Improving coverage, ensuring the quality and comprehensive content of programs, providing adequate training to educators, and obtaining greater institutional and cultural support are crucial steps to increase the effectiveness of sexuality education in the region.

Secondary School Students' Digital Literacy Skills, Social Media Addictions and Attitudes to Social Media Use

The aim of this study is to determine the digital literacy skills of secondary school students and their social media addictions and attitudes towards social media use. Descriptive survey model was used in the study. Convenient sampling method was used to determine the study group. The research was conducted on 327 volunteer middle school students within the borders of Amasya province in the 2022-2023 academic year. Data were collected using the digital literacy scale, social media addiction scale and social media attitude scale. Descriptive analysis, independent sample t test, one-way analysis of variance, correlation test and simple linear regression analysis were used in data analysis. According to the results of the analysis, it was seen that students' digital literacy skills and attitudes towards social media were at a medium level, and their social media addiction levels were at a low level. It was concluded that social media addiction was predicted by attitudes towards social media use and digital literacy skills.

Conative Dimension of Attitude: An Investigation on Student Influencing Stimuli in Decision-Making Processes

This paper investigates various stimuli that influence students’ expressed choice of university, including physical, psychological, social, and virtual factors. Using a combination of survey research and statistical analysis, the study examines the role of these factors in shaping students’ decisions and provides information on the decision-making process. The findings suggest that the support provided through the Virtual Factors is of considerable value for the students when making one of the most important decisions regarding the university to enrol to. Using the Kruskal-Wallis test, it emerges that there are some persistent gender concordances on price perception, study programme’s features, and even family effects. Using a sample of 828 respondents, the present research takes and adds a new angle by examining the effects of these dimensions on the conative aspect of the attitude and describes a behavioural orientation based on the ranking of these factors. This study advancement will be therefore directed to the completion of these factors as well as the ongoing research regarding the factors on how to change the attitudes of students on university study programmes, and thus the selection of these programmes.

Knowledge and attitude of pharmacy students towards HIV treatment and prophylaxis in Davao City, Philippines

Pharmacy students significantly contribute to HIV management as future registered pharmacists. To contribute meaningfully, pharmacy students must be knowledgeable and have positive attitudes towards HIV treatment and prophylaxis. The aim is to investigate the levels of knowledge and attitude of undergraduate pharmacy students towards HIV treatment and education to identify key areas of improvement. Methods: The study used a quantitative research design with a structured survey based on published studies. Undergraduate pharmacy students from various schools in Davao City were invited to participate and provide informed consent. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used after obtaining data. Results: Pharmacy students in Davao City were found to have high overall knowledge (mean = 64.29%) and a high overall attitude (mean = 3.88). Knowledge about HIV treatment and prophylaxis did not correlate with the respondents' attitudes towards it. Furthermore, it was found that there is a significant difference in knowledge and attitude based on year level and school (< 0.000). Conclusion: The knowledge and attitude of undergraduate pharmacy students toward HIV treatment and prevention were high, indicating favourable results. However, improvements and training must continue to enhance their knowledge and attitude and reduce misconceptions and stigma. Collaboration with key stakeholders is essential to ensure the implementation of intervention programmes.

Predicting Physics Students’ Academic Performance: The Impact of Attitude, Self-Efficacy, and Personality Traits

The study examined the predictive impact of attitude, self-efficacy, and personality traits on the academic performance of high school students in physics. A multistage random sampling technique was used to select 210 research subjects between the ages of 16 and 22 (SD=1.80) from three high schools in the Berekum East Municipality of Ghana. Three standardised questionnaires as primary data sources, namely: Attitude Toward Physics Learning (ATPL), Physics Learning Self-Efficacy (PLSE), and Students’ Personality Trait Inventory (SPTI), and additionally, Students’ Physics Mock Examinations scores as a secondary data source, were used for data collection and analysis through multiple regression. Data collected from respondents were compiled, sorted, edited and coded into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The results revealed a joint impact of 21.100% of the variance in attitude, self-efficacy, and personality traits in predicting the academic performance of students in physics. Furthermore, the multiple regression analysis revealed that student attitudes, self-efficacy, and personality traits significantly impact student academic performance in physics. The analysis further revealed that students’ personality traits best explained students’ academic performance in Physics (β = 0.232, t = 3.423; p < 0.050), followed by self-efficacy (β = 0.192, t = 2.738; p < 0.050), and attitude (β = 0.121, t = 2.011; p < 0.05). Based on the results obtained, the study recommended that physics students in the Berekum East Municipality’s attitudes, self-efficacy, and personality traits should be given greater attention by physics teachers, and other stakeholders because of their positive impact on students’ academic performance in physics.

Development of Pupils', Students' and Cadets Value Attitude to Health-Preserving Activities by Means of Combat Horting

The co-authors of the scientific publication carried out the research and described the results by means of a survey of 9th grade athletes from 34 sports clubs in Ukraine (n=807), research students of the State Institution Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University (n=92), and practicing students of the State Tax University (n=32), who were involved in the development of mini-projects on health promotion activities, conducting training in combat horting in natural conditions, experimental extracurricular health activities, writing qualification papers on the topic of research and participating in conferences of various levels, including international ones, monitoring activities during combat horting classes and extracurricular activities). The aim of the study is to practically test the efficiency of educating pupils', students' and cadets value attitude to health-preserving activities by means of combat horting. The basis of the study was the development of research skills through the method of analyzing student researchers; improvement of practical skills of pupils and students who participated as combat sport athletes and student practitioners, assistant coaches from 2020 to 2024. Results of the research. The co-authors of the research group developed and implemented a set of goals for educating pupils', students' and cadets to cultivate a value-based attitude to health promotion; developed questionnaires and conducted a survey among pupils and students; identified components, criteria and indicators for developing a value-based attitude of pupils', students' and cadets to health promotion; and presented practical recommendations. Moreover, the respondents acted as coaches, which promoted the development of soft skills and the ability of teamwork. Conclusions: This study contributed to the coordination of teamwork between pupils, students, teachers/coaches; aimed at improving the quality of professional and practical training of higher education students and their career development. Consequently, it is necessary to focus on the practical component of educational and research activities in higher education institutions, improvement of the educational and training process in sports clubs of Ukraine, based on the domestic and foreign experience of prominent experts.

Using AR to Enhance the Learning of Chirality

This study investigates the use of Augmented Reality (AR) to teach the concept of chirality—a fundamental topic in organic chemistry. Building on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and previous research on AR’s educational benefits, we designed an AR learning environment to facilitate students’ understanding of chirality by allowing them to interact with and superimpose virtual and physical models of chiral molecules. An initial pilot study involving 11th-grade students revealed positive student attitudes towards AR, with participants reporting enhanced comprehension of chirality and a preference for AR-based learning over traditional methods. The follow-up study refined the AR lesson based on pilot feedback, extending its scope to introduce, rather than review, the concept of chirality. Results indicated significant learning gains, low extraneous cognitive load, and high acceptance of AR technology among students. These findings underscore the potential of AR to support complex spatial learning in chemistry, though further research, such as value-added studies, is recommended to explore the generalizability and long-term impacts of AR on different student populations.

Language awareness survey among university students

In this study we examined the linguistic awareness and dialect attitudes of university students studying at the University of Nyíregyháza. It is particularly important that the future teachers have a positive attitude towards the varieties of the Hungarian language and share their knowledge with their learners in an effective way. However, the results of various research studies show that in many cases, mother tongue education in schools does not build on a multi-standard approach to language varieties, and as a consequence, non-standard varieties are perceived more negatively than standard ones. The aim of this research is to find out what the university students in the research study know about the regional variation of language, conscious language use and how they view dialect speech. The study was conducted through an online questionnaire survey involving 70 respondents. As a starting point for the research, it was assumed that the respondents’ dialect attitudes and language awareness would be determined by their experiences at school, and thus negative attitudes towards dialect speech would be observed in their value judgments. It was also assumed that respondents would be less accepting of the occurrence of dialect phenomena in their own language use and in the speech habits of others in their locality. The results showed that the majority of the students surveyed did not have a negative opinion of dialect phenomena, so the first hypothesis was not confirmed. However, the second hypothesis was partially confirmed, as far fewer respondents acknowledged the occurrence of dialect phenomena in their own language use than in the speech of the people in their locality. Overall, the majority of respondents to the survey have a positive attitude towards linguistic diversity and strive to use the language consciously. It is hoped that the students surveyed here will adopt the right approach to teaching about linguistic diversity in their teaching practice, thus positively influencing learners’ attitudes towards dialects and linguistic diversity.

Executive function training curriculum to enhance emotional intelligence in early childhood: Theory adaptation in educational design research

Emotional intelligence (EI) is vital for early childhood development and is closely linked to executive function (EF). EF is a foundation of cognitive ability in early childhood. Educational design research (EDR) offers an adaptive methodology for curriculum development. This study aimed to (1) analyze and explore perspectives for designing an executive function training (EFT) curriculum to enhance EI, (2) design and develop the EFT curriculum, and (3) evaluate and reflect on the EFT curriculum. The research underscores the need to enhance EI, social skills, self-help abilities, and positive attitudes in early childhood students. Developed through a collaborative effort involving multiple stakeholders, the EFT curriculum aligns with Thailand's Ministry of Education standards. It significantly improves EI scores across six assessments of EI's five elements: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and adeptness in relationships. The EFT curriculum emphasizes inhibitory control, shift/cognitive flexibility, emotional control, working memory, planning/organizing, and incorporating sleep to support cognitive and emotional development, a total of 150 hours. Developed with stakeholder input and rigorous design principles, the EFT curriculum prepares children for future learning and life challenges.

Pengetahuan kecacingan menggunakan media video pada siswa sekolah dasar

Helminthiasis in children still occurs in Seren Rembang. Educational video can enhance knowledge and attitudes in order to reduce the morbidity of Helminthiasis. This study aims to determine the impact of providing Helminthiasis educational video on the level of knowledge and attitude of students at SDN Seren Rembang. Research method is Quasi Experimental using a "pre-post test one group only" design. Total sampling involved 37 students of SDN Seren Rembang. Two questionnaires utilized to measure the knowledge and the attitude. Data analysis using the Paired Sample t-test. Result : Educational video is able to increase the average level of students' knowledge and attitude from 4.43 into 7.75, and from 30.43 into 33.37, respectively. Paired samples t-test is significant for both knowledge (p = 0,000), and attitude (p = 0,002). This study conclude that providing Helminthiasis educational video affect the level of knowledge and attitude of students at SDN Seren Rembang.

The Effect of an Educational Program on the Knowledge and Attitude of Medical Sciences Students About Social Determinants of Health in Iranian University Students: A Quasi-Experimental Study.

Given the importance of social determinants on health outcomes, training medical sciences students in addressing social determinants of health can enhance their effectiveness and social accountability. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of an educational program on the knowledge and attitude of medical sciences students regarding social determinants of health. Using a one-group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design, this study selected 200 students from a medical university in Iran through simple random sampling. A tailored educational intervention, grounded in the conceptual framework for action on social determinants of health, was implemented. To assess the program's effect, data were collected using a validated questionnaire that measured the students' knowledge and attitudes towards social determinants of health both at baseline (pretest) and 1 month following the intervention (posttest). The application of the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test revealed a significant increase in the median scores for knowledge and attitude postintervention. Specifically, the posttest median scores were significantly elevated compared to the pretest knowledge score (Z = -11.89, p < 0.001) and attitude score (Z = -11.60, p < 0.001). This indicates that the educational intervention significantly improved the students' knowledge and attitudes concerning social determinants of health. The study outcomes suggest that educational interventions focused on social determinants of health effectively improve students' knowledge and attitudes. We recommend integrating such programs into the medical sciences curriculum and experiential training. By doing so, we can better prepare future healthcare professionals to address social determinants of health-related issues. This approach has the potential to reduce health disparities and also addresses broader social challenges affecting population health.

Cross-sectional assessment of perception and attitude of pharmacy students towards pharmaceutical promotion: a study from developing country, Pakistan

BackgroundThe pharmaceutical promotion is “all informational and persuasive activities by manufacturers and distributors, the effect of which is to induce the prescription, supply, purchase and/or use of medicinal drugs. These promotional activities affect the dispensing behavior of physicians and pharmacists and influence begins from educational institutes.ObjectiveOur study’s main aim was to evaluate opinion and attitude of pharmacy students towards pharmaceutical promotion.Materials and methodsA cross-sectional online survey was conducted among 3rd, 4th and final year pharmacy students of 3 public and 3 private sector universities in Punjab Pakistan. A modified version of pre available questionnaire was used to collect data from students between June 2020 and December 2020. The tool was made available through a Google Form, assessable to students via provided link. We utilized the snowball sampling technique. Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the demographics, while Chi-square and t-test were used to analyze associations between demographics and items. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21.0.ResultsA total of 1,195 students participated in the survey with an average age of 22.2 ± 1.2 years. Nearly 2/3rd of the students were males (62.2%) and a significant proportion (87.3%) of pharmacy students had never taken part in any training provided by pharmaceutical company. Among all, 51.9% confirmed that pharmacists who frequently interact with medical representatives tend to dispense more antibiotics. Additionally, 42.1% indicated they may dispense antibiotics under the influence of promotion. Pharmacy students in senior college years and those with lower parental exhibited significantly more perception and attitude scores (p &amp;lt; 0.001).ConclusionA significant number of students concurred with the notion that promotional activities could impact dispensing practices and they also believed that such activities contribute to the growing issue of irrational antibiotic use. This study underscores the necessity for a heightened emphasis on the educational needs of pharmacy students.

Comparative Analysis of Self-Medication Practices with Antibiotics Among Non-Medical and Medical College Students in India

Background: Self-medication is prevalent globally, making the processes easier but raising potential hazards like antibiotic resistance. College students, influenced by social media, exhibit alarming self-medication behaviours. This cross-sectional study surveyed undergraduate students across medical, nursing, and non-health science institutions to assess the self-medication habits, knowledge and attitude of students. Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted across various educational institutions from August 2023 to February 2024, targeting undergraduate students aged 18 and over. Using a pre-validated questionnaire, data on socio-demography, self-medication with antibiotics, and related knowledge were collected via Google Forms. The sample size was doubled to 1175 for better statistical power. Data analysis was performed using standard statistical tools. Results: Analysis of data demonstrated that a substantive proportion of students self-medicate with antibiotics. For medical students, convenience was the biggest issue and for non-medical students, it was cost-saving coupled with distrust in doctors. The most common complaint received for self-medication was throat pain. Medical students used textbooks for necessary information whereas non-medical students went to local shops for advice. Patterns differed somewhat in comparison with international studies, indicating regional differences. Strikingly, medical students predominantly relied on academic knowledge and previous experiences while using antibiotics, whereas non-medical students often obtained antibiotics from shops or the internet, making them vulnerable to misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment. Conclusion: This highlights the importance of implementing specific interventions to reduce unsafe self-medication practices in students.