Steel Casing Research Articles

Borehole-to-Surface Electrical Imaging Technology for Dynamic Monitoring of Underground Gas Storage and Case Study

Summary To solve the issue of seasonal gas peak shaving, building underground gas storage is an effective solution. Geophysical monitoring technology is necessary for dynamic gas storage management. However, as these technologies are not highly accurate in the lateral direction, new technologies need to be developed. In recent years, borehole-to-surface electrical imaging (BSEI) technology has been widely used in reservoir and fracturing monitoring. In the dynamic monitoring of gas storage, high-power direct current is applied to the borehole through the steel casing, and the potential is measured on the surface. Then, resistivity inversion is performed to analyze the transverse distribution of the injected gas. To prove the feasibility of monitoring injected gas, a 3D forward case is simulated using the finite difference method (FDM). The model-structure-constrained inversion approach is verified. Based on the forward simulation results and the formation pressure period, the gas storage observation scheme is designed. The case study shows that the gas storage inversion results constrained by the upper formation have a high resolution and clearly show the transverse boundary of the target reservoir, which is consistent with the fault boundary determined by seismic prospecting. Therefore, 3D resistivity imaging can clearly show the distribution of gas reservoirs during injection and production. This study shows that BSEI is an effective technique for dynamic monitoring of gas storage and has good application prospects.

Plastic anisotropy of powder bed fusion maraging steel: An experimental replication study

The plastic anisotropy of additively manufactured metals can be estimated with the use of the ratio of width to thickness plastic strain, commonly referred to as R-value. Published research has indicated the suitability of the experimentally obtained R-value for the case of maraging steel produced via powder bed fusion (PBF) at different build orientations and subsequently heat treated. The present study replicates this experimental methodology for the same alloy as per published literature, which has been produced with a different PBF equipment (having a different laser power and using a different layer thickness). This replication experimental study has successfully assessed the predictability of the R-value methodology for the PBF maraging steel. In particular, the presence of a comparable level of plastic anisotropy has been discovered in the examined material. Moreover, a previously reported decreasing R-value trend with an increase of the build orientation inclination has also been confirmed.

Meshing strategies for 3d geo-electromagnetic modeling in the presence of metallic infrastructure

In 3D geo-electromagnetic modeling, an adequate discretisation of the modeling domain is crucial to obtain accurate forward responses and reliable inversion results while reducing the computational cost. This paper investigates the mesh design for subsurface models, including steel-cased wells, which is relevant for many exploration settings but still remains a numerically challenging task. Applying a goal-oriented mesh refinement technique and subsequent calculations with the high-order edge finite element method, simulations of 3D controlled-source electromagnetic models in the presence of metallic infrastructure are performed. Two test models are considered, each needing a distinct version of approximation methods to incorporate the conductive steel casings of the included wells. The influence of mesh quality, goal-oriented meshing, and high-order approximations on problem sizes, computational cost, and accuracy of electromagnetic responses is investigated. The main insights of our work are: (a) the applied numerical schemes can mitigate the computational burden of geo-electromagnetic modeling in the presence of steel artifacts; (b) investigating the processes driving the meshing of models with embedded metallic infrastructures can lead to adequate strategies to deal with the inversion of such electromagnetic data sets. Based on the modeling results and analyses conducted, general recommendations for modeling strategies are proposed when performing simulations for challenging steel infrastructure scenarios.

Light-weighting of battery casing for lithium-ion device energy density improvement

Battery casings are essential components in all types of lithium and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and typically consist of nickel-coated steel hard casings for 18650 and 21700 cell formats. These steel casings comprise over one quarter of total battery cell mass and do not actively contribute to battery capacity. It is therefore possible to achieve considerable battery performance improvements, in terms of device energy density, by reducing the mass of the battery casing. Following successful completion of an industry-academic technology programme of light-weighting battery casings, this paper reports our research activities to understand the practical performance of aluminium hard casings which are 63 % lighter than a state-of-the-art steel casing. A popular exemplary battery chemistry, Lithium Titanate anode / Lithium Iron Phosphate cathode, which is well-known for high power and good safety, was employed. Research investigations include (a) the optimisation of standard commercial LIB manufacturing process for aluminium casings, (b) the production of 18650 LIBs using aluminium casings, (c) electrochemical analysis and safety testing of the cells, comparing with those assembled with steel. The aluminium casings could readily be incorporated into standard commercial LIB manufacturing process with minimal process changes and provided a > 25 % boost to energy density. Crucially, stress testing of the cells revealed no added safety challenges associated with the material change. Lightweight Al hard casings have presented a possible solution to help address weight sensitive applications of lithium-ion batteries that require high power (or high energy). The approaches herein are battery materials agnostic and can be applied to different cell geometries to help fast-track battery performance improvements.

Influence of anchored orbicular rings on the performance of sandwich concrete‐filled double‐skin steel tube columns

AbstractSince recent years, double‐skin tube column sections formed from two parallel, concentrically spaced steel casings, with the sandwiched area between the casings packed with concrete infill, have been employed extensively. The cross‐sectional shapes of the inner and outer casings might be the same or different, such as round, square, octagonal, etc. These concrete‐filled double‐skin steel tubular (CFDST) columns act similarly to concrete‐filled steel tubular (CFST) sections but have less self‐weight and better stiffness. The present study evaluated the response of CFDST column stiffened with orbicular rings under axial compression. It consists of inner and outer steel tubes stiffened by orbicular rings near both ends of columns. The orbicular rings were provided at different locations as L/3, L/4, and L/5, and a series of tests were conducted to obtain the performance of CFDST columns stiffened with orbicular rings with regard to the maximum load‐carrying capacity, load–strain behavior, and load‐deformation behavior. Furthermore, a parametric study was conducted by varying the diameter to thickness ratio, hollowness ratio, the thickness of orbicular rings, yield strength, and location of orbicular rings. The results showed that CFDST column stiffened with orbicular rings have higher ultimate load capacity than unstiffened CFDST. Stiffened CFDST with orbicular rings showed more ductile response than CFDST column and helps to improve the outer steel tube's restraint on sandwiched concrete. In order to estimate the load‐bearing capacity of CFDST columns stiffened with orbicular rings under axial compression, an empirical equation was proposed. The experimental results and findings of the suggested equations were found to be in good agreement.

Alloy composition and process design based on thermodynamic and kinetic simulation: The case of medium Mn steel

This paper presents a design method for alloy materials that can be applied to medium Mn steel containing Al and/or Si. By using thermodynamic calculations based on CALPHAD, a wide range of alloy composition spaces were systematically studied, and the relationship between retained austenite fraction and its stability with intercritical annealing temperature was investigated. Alloys that meet the Process Window (PW) were screened and their various characteristics of alloy elements within the process window were determined. Additionally, the study performs three different kinetic simulations of austenite growth and solute partitioning during isothermal annealing on alloys that meet PW. The prediction of the model is verified by comparing with the experimental data in the literature. The results show that the remote model is more suitable for the actual production of low temperature isothermal intercritical annealing. Therefore, the method provided in this work makes a guiding contribution to alloy development, which can determine the alloy composition and heat treatment process satisfying PW and optimize the overall properties.

Design of End Casting for Thin Composite Stiffened Panels Subjected to Axial Compression Load

Compression testing of large, thin, stiffened composite panels is complex due to the susceptibility of such panels to premature buckling and failure. Such failures are due to the artefacts of testing, such as, offset at load introduction edges, non-uniform distribution of loads, nature of lateral supports, crushing of panel edges etc. In this paper, a novel approach for compression loading of thin stiffened composite panels is proposed and validated from finite element analysis supported by tests. Compression loading of such panels (less than 2mm thick) is challenging since the edges are susceptible to local crushing. To avoid this, loading edges of the panel were encased in mild steel casing blocks filled with finely grounded aluminium powder mixed with epoxy resin. Coupon level tests were conducted to measure mechanical properties of the interface between composite and casting mixture. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique was used in these tests to measure the full field strains and to validate numerical simulations. Further, finite element analysis of the actual composite test panel with end casting mixture was performed which indicated that interface shear stresses and compression stresses at maximum expected load are much lower than allowables obtained from specimen tests. Hence, the Aluminium-Epoxy cast mixture proposed in this study can be used safely to cast edges of large stiffened panels for axial compression tests.

Analysis and optimization of concentrator photovoltaic system using a phase change material (RT 35HC) combined with variable metal fins

One of the biggest challenges of modern technology is the production of clean energy from available resources such as wind, sun and sea. The solar panel is considered as a potent tool for the production of green electric energy from solar irradiation. However, the performance of photovoltaic (PV) systems is related to the effectiveness of the integrated cooling system. In the present paper, PCM (RT35HC) has been used as a cooling process, which is placed in the back container of the photovoltaic unit. To enhance the thermal performance of PCM, a set of fins of different materials (graphite, copper, steel and titanium) has been integrated into the cooling enclosure. Additionally, the performance of the solar panel has been investigated with the variation of the inclination angle (β = 0, 30, 45, 75, and 90°). Independently of the fins material type and the inclination angle (β) of the PV-system, the presence of fins has relatively enhanced the energetical efficiency of the solar panel, especially with the adoption of graphite and copper materials. With the use of graphite and copper, the mean temperature of the solar panel was reduced by 3 °C compared to the case of steel and titanium. The overall PV temperature was stabilized at around 40 °C. The outcomes of the present study are of great importance for future developments of photovoltaic (PV) systems.

Experimental and numerical investigation on concrete filled steel tube columns reinforced with diagonal stiffeners under axial loading

In modern construction use of composite sections such as CFST columns was improved because of their numerous benefits in construction processes. However, some disadvantages like buckling of steel tube, poor corrosion and fire resistance necessitates the stiffening measures to be adopted. In this study, a novel stiffening scheme was proposed to use with unstiffened CFST column. The stiffening scheme is named as diagonal stiffeners which comprises diagonal stiffeners attached at diagonally opposite ends of steel tube. The stiffeners can be provided in three formats viz, binary, tertiary, and quaternary arrangement. In this paper the response of diagonal stiffeners CFST columns under axial compression was investigated through experimental program. The findings of the analysis were collected with regard to ultimate capacity, load vs strain response, and load vs deformation behavior. Further, to explore the performance of suggested stiffener arrangement, a FE model was developed in ABAQUS and validated through experimental findings. A parametric examination was conducted to evaluate the influence of diameter of stiffeners, number of stiffeners and its yield strength on the ultimate load capacity, load vs strain behavior, axial stress distribution in concrete, lateral deformation of column, and Poisson’s ratio of outer steel casing. Results of the analysis showed that CFST columns strengthened with proposed stiffening arrangements showed approximately 15–25 % higher ultimate load capacity than unstiffened CFST section. Also, using the diagonal stiffeners improved the pre-peak and post-peak behavior of column section. The local buckling of outer steel casing was eliminated and ductility of column section improved. It was deduced that stiffened CFST columns had better confining pressure on concrete infill and composite interaction between outer steel casing and infill concrete was enhanced. The prediction formula to anticipate axial load capacity was also established and can be employed to design of CFST with diagonal stiffeners.

Enhancement of explosive effect of thermobaric explosive by metal reactive material

AbstractReactive materials have mechanical properties comparable to metal materials and also have the reaction‐release energy characteristics of energetic materials. The calorific value of reactive materials is even higher than that of explosives. They can react under high pressure/high temperature and release a large amount of chemical energy. Therefore, reactive materials have a wide range of potential applications in aviation and national defense fields. This study examines the energy release characteristics of the metal reactive material casing (MRMC) under thermobaric explosives and compares them to traditional steel casing. The test specimens had the same casing‐charge mass ratio and size, with the only difference being the casing material: reactive material (with reactive elements Zr and Al) and AISI 1020 steel. The physical and chemical properties of the reactive materials were tested and analyzed using ICP‐MS, oxygen bomb calorimeter, and SHPB. Through explosion tests, the characteristic parameters of explosion fireball and ground shock wave overpressure were measured. And the reactive fragments recovered from the experiment were subjected to XRD testing. The results show that MRMC can significantly increase the diameter, duration, and temperature of the explosion fireball compared to steel casing data. The maximum fireball diameter of the MRMC specimen increased by 31.9 %, while the duration before attenuation increased by 47.3 %. MRMC can increase the area ratio of high‐temperature areas (greater than 1300 °C) in the fireball. MRMC increases the overall temperature of the fireball, not just in specific local areas. Additionally, MRMC significantly enhances far‐field shock waves. At a scaled distance of 2.54, the peak overpressure and positive impulse of the MRMC specimen were 50 % and 52 % higher than those of the steel specimen, respectively. This study provides new insights into the application, design, and energy release research of MRMC.

Radial bimetallic structures via wire arc directed energy deposition-based additive manufacturing

Bimetallic wire arc additive manufacturing (AM) has traditionally been limited to depositions characterized by single planar interfaces. This study demonstrates a more complex radial interface concept, with in situ mechanical interlocking and as-built properties suggesting a prestressed compressive effect. A 308 L stainless core is surrounded by a mild steel casing, incrementally maintaining the interface throughout the Z-direction. A small difference in the thermal expansion coefficient between these steels creates residual stresses at their interface. X-ray diffraction analysis confirms phase purity and microstructural characterization reveals columnar grain growth independent of layer transitions. Hardness values are consistent with thermal dissipation characteristics, and the compressive strength of the bimetallic structures shows a 33% to 42% improvement over monolithic controls. Our results demonstrate that biomimetic radial bimetallic variation is feasible with improved mechanical response over monolithic compositions, providing a basis for advanced structural design and implementation using arc-based metal AM.

Investigation of the Behavior of Steel Plate Shear Walls Considering Double Corrugated Low-Yield-Point Steel Infill Plate

During the last three decades, interest in the application of steel shear walls has increased worldwide. Steel shear walls are used as stiffened and unstiffened walls. One of the main shortcomings of the steel plate shear wall (SPSW) is the infill plate buckling mainly under lateral wind and seismic loads. One of the useful solutions to prevent lateral buckling is the use of walls with corrugated plates. In this research, the behavior of a steel shear wall consisting of two corrugated plates was investigated in the two material cases of the conventional ASTM A36 steel and the low-yield-point (LYP) steel. The use of steel with low yield strength improves the seismic performance of the steel shear wall system. In this study, the effect of the corrugation angle and aspect ratio of the plate were investigated. The results showed that the effect of corrugation angle on the structural parameters of walls with LYP steel is greater than that of walls with A36 steel. By increasing the corrugation angle from 30° to 60°, the elastic stiffness of A36 and LYP walls decreased about 24 and 36%, respectively, and the response modification factor (Ru) of A36 and LYP walls decreased by about 24 and 56%. The corrugation angle has a lower effect on the ultimate strength and energy absorption. Investigating the effect of aspect ratio showed that increasing the aspect ratio improves the seismic performance of the wall.

Satellite Sensed Data-Dose Response Functions: A Totally New Approach for Estimating Materials’ Deterioration from Space

When construction materials are exposed to the atmospheric environment, they are subject to deterioration, which varies according to the time period of exposure and the location. A tool named Dose–Response Functions (DRFs) has been developed to estimate this deterioration. DRFs use specific air pollutants and climatic parameters as input data. Existing DRFs in the literature use only ground-based measurements as input data. This fact constitutes a limitation for the application of this tool because it is too expensive to establish and maintain such a large network of ground-based stations for pollution monitoring. In this study, we present the development of new DRFs using only satellite data as an input named Satellite Sensed Data Dose-Response Functions (SSD-DRFs). Due to the global coverage provided by satellites, this new tool for monitoring the corrosion/soiling of materials overcomes the previous limitation because it can be applied to any area of interest. To develop SSD-DRFs, we used measurements from MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder) on board Aqua and OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) on Aura. According to the obtained results, SSD-DRFs were developed for the case of carbon steel, zinc, limestone and modern glass materials. SSD-DRFs are shown to produce more reliable corrosion/soiling estimates than “traditional” DRFs using ground-based data. Furthermore, research into the development of the SSD-DRFs revealed that the different corrosion mechanisms taking place on the surface of a material do not act additively with each other but rather synergistically.

Influence of Borehole Casing on Received Signals in Downhole Method

Borehole shrinkage and collapse are likely to occur when downhole testing is conducted in soft or loose sandy soils, resulting in testing interruption. To prevent this situation from occurring, installing casing in the borehole is a common approach. However, in actual testing, the quality of the signal obtained from measuring points within the depth of the casing is often not ideal, and there is still no clear and unified justification for the causes of interference generated by the casing. Therefore, the team attempt to investigate and elucidate the impact of casing through on-site experiments and numerical simulations. Firstly, on-site tests on the impact of different materials of casing on the wave velocity test utilizing the downhole method are conducted, the waveform characteristics of the measurement points inside the PVC casing and steel casing boreholes are analyzed, and the usability of the test results are evaluated. Next, the contact state between shallow soil and casing is changed, and its impact on the waveform characteristics of signal at different depth measurement points is analyzed. Then, the ABAQUS finite element software is utilized to establish a three-dimensional finite element model for wave velocity testing using the casing method, and the dynamic response of the measuring points on the casing wall inside the hole under surface excitation is solved. By numerically simulating different casing materials, the contact state between the casing and the hole wall, and the presence of low wave velocity filling soil around the casing, the variation patterns of the affected measurement point signals in the time and frequency domains are investigated. Furthermore, combined with the measured data, the impact characteristics of the casing on the results of the wave velocity testing using the downhole method are systematically explored. This research can provide some insights for the application and data interpretation of signals in the downhole methods of cased wells.

State of the Practice Worldwide: Complex Installation for In Situ Thermal Remediation Beneath an Active Manufacturing Facility

AbstractIn situ thermal remediation (ISTR) was used to treat a vadose‐zone source of trichloroethylene present at depths of 60 to 125 ft. below an occupied building at an active manufacturing facility. ISTR required innovative methods to install 135 steel casings from inside the building that included access limitations, space constraints that required angled borings and pre‐modeling of rig mast positions, control measures to manage exhaust from up to four drill rigs operating simultaneously, adjustments to heater wiring to limit temperatures in shallow soils leading to indoor air heating and potential for vapor intrusion, and ensure proper positioning and trajectory of closely spaced heaters. The installed heater casings were surveyed using a Devi‐Flex™ tool to monitor heater placement in casings that ranged from 87 to 196 ft. at angles between 90° and 30° from horizontal and periodically had to compensate for deflections caused by cobbles and boulders. Additional casings were installed to ensure adequate heater spacings in cases where deviations exceeded design parameters. ISTR was conducted using custom‐built thermal conduction heaters designed to minimize heat output in the shallow vadose zone and inside the building while temperatures in the lower vadose zone were maintained near boiling. Cables, vapor extraction pipes, and exhaust ducts were routed overhead and through the building roof to minimize disturbance to manufacturing operations. To expedite remediation, three groups of heaters and vapor recovery wells were installed and operated in overlapping periods. The major challenges and solutions for ISTR design, construction, and operation are presented. Operations and remedial results are covered in a companion paper.

Creep Life Assessment of In-Service Components by Testing Sub-Standard Sized Samples in Bending: An Example Case of X22CrMoV12-1 Ferritic Steel Used in Steam Turbines

Creep Life Assessment of In-Service Components by Testing Sub-Standard Sized Samples in Bending: An Example Case of X22CrMoV12-1 Ferritic Steel Used in Steam Turbines

An energy-based method for predicting the peak displacement of steel casing composite pile under lateral impact loading

Effective and convenient prediction of the peak displacement of piles under collision conditions facilitates the design framework preparation and pile damage evaluation. Hence, an energy-based method was proposed to predict the peak displacement of the widely used steel casing composite (SCC) piles under impact loading. The pile deformation energy was first calculated based on its deformation characteristics and the relationship between the sectional bending moment and curvature. The pile deformation energy and pile–soil energy distribution ratio were then employed to determine the relationship between the total absorbed impact energy and pile head displacement, which was represented by curves. The peak pile displacement under lateral impact loading was finally obtained by interpolating the absorbed impact energy curves. By conducting sectional analysis of the pile considering the strain rate effects and using a structural pushover procedure, the peak pile head displacements for various collision cases were predicted with reasonable accuracy. The effectiveness and reliability of the proposed method were verified by comparing its results with those of previous reduced-scale impact tests and validated full-scale finite element models.

Wear factors and mechanisms of L-80 steel casings

Casing wear in directional drilling is inevitable and may result in catastrophic failure of the casing column. It is thus essential to understand its mechanisms and quantify its extent by estimating the casing wear factor. In this research, actual field casing samples, drilling pipe joints and muds were considered. An in-house built testing facility was used to test several L-80 casing samples by considering three rotational speeds of the drill pipe tool joint (DP-TJ) (115, 154, and 207 rpm) and three side loads (1000 N, 1200 N and 1400 N). The influence of the water- and oil-based muds on the coefficient of friction, wear volume, wear factor and wear mechanisms were investigated. The results revealed that under water-based mud (WBM) lubrication casing wear volume and wear factors were more than twice that of oil-based mud (OBM) lubrication. Moreover, it was observed that as the side load increased under both OBM and WBM lubrication at a constant rpm, both wear volume and wear factor increased. However, increasing the rotational speed while maintaining the side load constant decreased the wear factor, owing to the localized softening effect caused by the high heat generation at the contact area and the possible hydrodynamic lubrication regime change at higher speeds. The analysis of the digital microscopic images taken at the wear region shows that abrasive mechanism was dominant in the case of OBM lubrication. On the other hand, both abrasive and adhesive wear mechanisms were present under WBM lubrication.

Experimental Study on the Negative Skin Friction of Piles in Collapsible Loess

The collapsible loess is widely distributed in western China. The special structure and water sensitivity of loess lead to the complex negative skin friction mechanism in pile foundations. Previous studies mainly focused on the negative skin friction of pile foundations and treatment measures, such as casing and coating methods. However, few studies have focused on the influence of the negative skin friction on the settlement and bearing capacity of piles in collapsible loess, especially environmentally friendly methods that can reduce the negative skin friction. In this study, a series of non-immersion and immersion experiments was conducted to investigate the settlement, axial force, and side friction resistance of piles in loess soil under controlled conditions. The results showed that under the non-immersion condition, the settlement of model piles increased with the increasing pile top load. The axial force gradually decreased along the pile length for piles without casing. The axial force attenuation of the casing section of casing piles was almost negligible due to the isolating frictional resistance effect of casing. The settlement of each soil layer increased with the increase in immersion time, and the process was divided into an initial gradual stage, rapid drop stage, and later gradual stage. Both negative and positive skin friction increased with the increasing immersion time and pile top load, and there was a neutral point. The maximum axial force of piles without casing exceeded the peak load at the pile top. The presence of steel casing reduced the failure of pile foundation in collapsible loess. The research results of this paper provide theoretical support for the application of piles in loess areas.

Cased-hole reverse time migration imaging using ultrasonic pitch-catch measurement: Theory and synthetic case studies

Cement-bond evaluation is of great significance in oil/gas development, geothermal production, and CO2 storage. Advanced ultrasonic pitch-catch measurement exhibits poor performance in determining a cement-formation interface due to weak reflections from the cement-formation interface (third interface echo) in nonaxisymmetric complex ultrasonic environments. To deal with this issue, we use a reverse time migration (RTM) approach for ultrasonic pitch-catch measurements to image the cased-hole structure, especially for the cement-formation interface. To further enhance cased-hole RTM feasibility, a phase-shift interpolation technique is applied to reconstruct ultrasonic array waveforms from limited receivers in the pitch-catch measurement. Synthetic examples demonstrate that RTM is capable of imaging the cement-formation interface with a high resolution under various eccenterings of casings and tools. This study illustrates that small errors introduced by phase-shift interpolations do not greatly degrade the imaging result of RTM. Furthermore, tests for inclined cement-formation interfaces demonstrate that the RTM is able to recover the true position and geometry of the cement-formation interface when a smoothed velocity model is available. In addition, although RTM is sensitive to the velocity perturbation, it is possible to image the cased-hole structure by using a multistep strategy assuming that the position and thickness of the steel casing are unknown.