State Predicates Research Articles

Preconditions and projection: Explaining non-anaphoric presupposition

In this paper we articulate a pragmatic account of the projection behavior of three classes of non-anaphoric projective contents: the pre-states of change of state (CoS) predicates, the veridical entailments of factives, and the implication of satisfaction of selectional restrictions. Given evidence that the triggers of these implications are not anaphoric, hence do not impose presuppositional constraints on their local contexts, we argue that the projection behavior of these implications cannot be explained by the standard Karttunen/Heim/van der Sandt proposals. But we recognize that parallels between the projection behavior of these implications and the projection behavior of anaphorically-triggered implications must be explained. The current account offers a unified explanation of why the predicates in question give rise to projection at all; why projection of these implications is susceptible to contextual suppression; and why projection is systematically filtered in the standard Karttunen filtering environments, despite the absence of contextual constraints. We demonstrate that our account largely makes the same predictions for filtering of anaphoric and non-anaphoric presuppositions, and briefly support the claim that in the case of disjunction, filtering in the two cases is not fully parallel, as predicted by our account. We also briefly discuss how the well-documented variability in projection across predicates in the same semantic class can be understood within our approach.

Mental states via possessive predication: the grammar of possessive experiencer complex predicates in Persian

Persian possesses a number of stative complex predicates with dâshtan ‘to have’ that express certain kinds of mental state. I propose that these possessive experiencer complex predicates be given a formal semantic treatment involving possession of a portion of an abstract quality by an individual, as in the analysis of property concept lexemes due to Francez and Koontz-Garboden (Language 91(3):533–563, 2015; Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 34:93–106, 2016; Semantics and morphosyntactic variation: Qualities and the grammar of property concepts, Oxford University Press, 2017). Augmented with an analysis of prepositional phrases introducing the target of the mental state and an approach to gradability in terms of measure functions (Wellwood in Measuring predicates, PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 2014), the analysis explains various properties of possessive experiencer complex predicates, including the behavior of target phrases, the ability of the non-verbal element to be modified by a range of adjectives, the direct participation of the non-verbal element in comparative constructions, and the ability of degree expressions to modify both the non-verbal element and the VP containing the complex predicate. Theoretically, the analysis ties transitive mental state expressions to the grammar and semantics of property concept sentences, which are expressed via possessive morphosyntax cross-linguistically, and connects with syntactic proposals that independently argue for a universal underlyingly possessive morphosyntax for mental state predicates (Noonan in Case and syntactic geometry, PhD dissertation, McGill University, 1992; Hale and Keyser in Prolegomenon to a theory of argument structure, MIT Press, 2002). The work here also motivates modifications to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s original proposal, and opens new questions in the original empirical domain of the analysis of possessive predicating strategies for the expression of property concept sentences.

КОНЦЕПТУАЛИЗАЦИЯ ПРОЦЕССОВ ПАМЯТИ В ЕСТЕСТВЕННОМ ЯЗЫКЕ: ЗАБЫВАТЬ И ПОМНИТЬ

The paper focuses on representation of memory in Russian, exploring, specifically, its spatial interpretation and semantic types of predicates objectifying mnemonic processes in relation to the time axis: actions, processes and states are distinguished. Special emphasis is on the semantics of the verb помнить (pomnit’) which is interpreted as fundamentally different from its derivatives and its antonymous verb забывать (zabyvat’) . The study is based on the hypothesis-deduction research procedure, an integral part of which is a semantic experiment conducted either in the form of surveys of native speaking respondents or in its online version, namely, in the form of Yandex and Google search requests for word combinations. In the latter case the search engines function as a “collective respondent”. As part of the research methodology, the authors used the explanatory potential of imperative forms to indicate the presence or absence of control feature in the semantics of the action verb, and established restrictions on its realization associated with aspectual opposition in the predicate system. The research allowed for constructing a matrix based on the interaction of semantic features manifested on different levels (taxonomy characteristics as action and state predicates), as well as specifying the status of the verb помнить (pomnit’) as existential-resultative in contrast to its previous linguistic interpretation as a state predicate. The results also include identifying lexical features that refer to the interaction between subjects and the memory space, and tracing the systemic metaphor-based shifts to denoting speech act in a number of memory verbs.

Towards ontology of states: Experiencer verbs in Bulgarian

The internal structure of the situations described by verbs or verbal phrases determines the lexical aspect (or Aktionsart) of the particular predicate. The main topic of our study is the syntactic structure of verbal predicates denoting perceptions, emotions, and mental states,
 e.g. гледам (see), чувам (hear); обичам (love), обожавам (adore), радвам се (be happy/glad), безпокоя се (worry), плаша се (be afraid/scared); желая (desire), вярвам (believe). The objectives of our study are to propose a syntactic model of state predicates
 represented by verbs of perception, emotions, and mental states and to determine the number, type, and semantics of their arguments (subject, direct, and indirect objects). Our aim is also to test the hypothesis of dependence between lexical semantics and syntactic
 realizations of state predicates.

СЕМАНТИЧНА КЛАСИФИКАЦИЯ НА ПРЕДИКАТИТЕ ЗА СЪСТОЯНИЕ В БЪЛГАРСКИ

The object of study are state predicates and their classification based on semantic features. Different classifications of state predicates are briefly presented; in general, two types of classifications can be distinguished: classifications that group predicates based on a common property, such as emotional states, perceptions, cognitive process-es, etc., and classifications that group predicates based on the presence or absence of some semantic feature, such as stativity, duration, etc. In the former case, the classifications (if detailed) are contradictory, because they are not based on clear-cut criteria, and in the latter the classifications are very general, as the distinct groups include predicates that are diverse in type and compatibility. In this study we will present the main classes of state predicates in a unified system and will illustrate them with appropriate examples (focusing only on lexical states). The following semantic features of the topical argument (the semantic subject of the predicate, regardless of its syntactic realization) are distinguished: mental experience, physical experience, conscious participation, animacy and inanimacy. Based on them, state predicates are classified, and the grouping makes it possible to draw conclusions about the distribution of permanent and temporary state predicates, as well as about the syntactic realization of the topical argument. Keywords: state predicates, individual-level and stage-level predicates, semantic characteristics of state predicates

PRESUPPOSITION IN JOE BIDEN’S INAUGURATION SPEECH

This study aims to find the types of presupposition used by Joe Biden in his inauguration speech. The meanings of the utterances are based on the context of the speech used theory of context proposed by Huang (2014). This study used a qualitative descriptive method because the researcher describes presupposition and meaning in speech. The data is taken from BBC News. The results of this study found 32 utterances that indicated presupposition. These utterances were classified into nine types of presupposition were used by Joe Biden in his inauguration speech. They are thirteen utterances of definite description, three utterances of factive predicates, two utterances of aspectual of state predicates, three utterances of iteratives, one utterance of implicative predicates, three utterances of quantifiers, one utterance of temporal clause, three utterances of cleft sentences, and three utterances of counterfactual conditional presupposition. The study did the analysis based on two types of context they are linguistic context and non-linguistic context. Besides, the study found that the utterances of Joe Biden in his inauguration speech have implied meanings that were not conveyed directly.

ВАЛЕНТНІСНІ ВЛАСТИВОСТІ ПРИСЛІВНИКОВИХ ПРЕДИКАТІВ ЯКОСТІ ТА ПРЕДИКАТІВ СТАНУ

An adverb is the most peripheral part-of-speech class of attributive words in terms of its semantic and grammatical characteristics. The sign of an adverb is a reflection of the syntactic relations of sign words – attributive, circumstantial and others. An adverbial sign appears as a static sign of a predicate or an attribute of an object. Adverbs that perform the function of an adverbial compound predicate in a two-member sentence and an adverbial compound of a principal part of a one-member sentence are formal-grammatical correlates of state predicates; prominent among them are the predicates of the qualitative-evaluative state and the predicates of the state of the environment, the external state of a certain spatial object, the emotional-mental, physical and physiological state of a being, etc. Adverbs, like other classes of attributive words, have a category of semantic-syntactic valence, but it has a transpositional character, because they acquire it in connection with the transposition into formal-syntactic positions of the verb – adverbial compound predicate in two-member sentence and an adverbial compound of a principal part in a simple sentence. The defining feature of the valence of adverbial predicates is smallness, because quality predicates and adverbial predicates of state, which correlate with the adverbial compound predicate of a two-member sentence and an adverbial compound of a principal part in a simple sentence, are monovalent. In addition to obligatory subject valence, some predicates of qualitative and modal semantics may have optional and some even obligatory object valence. Characteristically, subjective valence correlates with a subject, a typically expressed by non-predicate noun with the meaning of an object or a being, or substantivized by demonstrative pronoun adjectives this, that, only in the formal-syntactic structure of an elementary two-member sentence with an adverbial compound predicate. This valence is more often represented by the infinitive form or the predicate noun in a non-elementary two-member sentence.

Operator focus in discourse and grammar: The two perfectives in Kakabe

Abstract This study investigates how focus on a TAM and polarity value, known in the literature as operator (Dik 1989, Watters 2010) or auxiliary focus (Hyman & Watters 1984), is manifested in natural speech in Kakabe, a Mande language. I show that the opposition between the two perfective auxiliaries attested in Kakabe is best analyzed in terms of operator focus and therefore extend this notion to Mande languages for the first time. This study analyzes operator focus on the perfective in natural speech. It leads to the discovery of new contexts relevant for the description of focused perfectives, such as performative speech acts and utterances with mental state predicates. Finally, I propose a new approach to the distribution of inflectional markers in narratives, based on an account of the main story line as structured by one overarching Question under Discussion.

Russian Emotive Verbs in the Semantic Classification of Predicates

The present research features predicates expressed by Russian reflexive emotive verbs. The paper focuses on statements containing reflexive emotive verbs and their convertible correlates, e.g. volnovatsia – volnovat, trevozhitsia – trevozhit, serditsia – serdit, etc. The research objective was to determine the place of these pairs of emotive verbs in the semantic classification of predicates of the Russian language. The author used the method of semantic testing for localization / non-localization on time axis and controllability / non-controllability. The method made it possible to assign these predicates to a particular class, as well as to reveal in their semantic structure a derived value that has not been fixed by explanatory dictionaries. As a result, the predicates were split into two semantic classes, i.e. properties and states. The division was confirmed by semantic tests for localization / non-localization on time axis and controllability / non-controllability. According to the tests, the predicates expressed by the convergent pairs of emotive verbs were included in the group of state predicates, due to their localization on the time axis. The semantic sign of uncontrollability was inherent in the studied predicates of the state in their emotive meaning. Acquisition by these predicates of the meaning "purposeful activity", "imitation of an emotional state", "opportunity, duty", and, accordingly, the sign of controllability made it possible to classify them as a group of activity predicates.

Deep reinforcement learning using compositional representations for performing instructions

AbstractSpoken language is one of the most efficientways to instruct robots about performing domestic tasks. However, the state of the environment has to be considered to plan and execute actions successfully. We propose a system that learns to recognise the user’s intention and map it to a goal. A reinforcement learning (RL) system then generates a sequence of actions toward this goal considering the state of the environment. A novel contribution in this paper is the use of symbolic representations for both input and output of a neural Deep Q-network (DQN), which enables it to be used in a hybrid system. To show the effectiveness of our approach, the Tell-Me-Dave corpus is used to train an intention detection model and in a second step an RL agent generates the sequences of actions towards the detected objective, represented by a set of state predicates. We show that the system can successfully recognise command sequences fromthis corpus aswell as train the deep- RL network with symbolic input.We further show that the performance can be significantly increased by exploiting the symbolic representation to generate intermediate rewards.

Stage salience and situational likelihood in the formation of situation models during sentence comprehension

Two experiments examined the relation between event structure, situational likelihood and eye fixation time while reading predicate modifiers in isolated sentences. Experiment 1 used activity predicates and preparatory process predicates (climbed a mountain), which make salient the process that leads to a culmination. Preparatory process predicates increased first pass time on durative modifiers (for several years) and decreased total time on frequency modifiers (e.g., every year). Situational likelihood was associated with fixation times on frame modifiers (last year) but not with fixation times on durative or frequency modifiers. Experiment 2 used activity predicates and result state predicates (halted a class), which make salient the result that follows from a culmination. Result state predicates had no effect on fixation times on durative modifiers and decreased total time on frequency modifiers. Situational likelihood was associated only with total time on durative modifiers. These results demonstrate that readers use the meanings of predicates and modifiers to form an initial model of a sentence and that the likelihood of the reported situation is related to reading time relatively late. The results are discussed in terms of type coercion theory and situation models in sentences and narratives.

N400 and P600 modulation in presupposition accommodation: The effect of different trigger types

Abstract This study investigates the neurophysiological correlates of presupposition processing in conditions of satisfaction and accommodation, comparing two types of triggers: definite descriptions and change-of-state verbs. Results showed that, for both types, the accommodation of presuppositions is associated with a biphasic N400-P600 pattern at the processing point. With definite descriptions, we observed a more clear involvement of the N400, while for change-of-state verbs the costs of accommodation were associated with a more pronounced P600. Moreover, when conveyed by change of state predicates, presuppositions seem to elicit also a P200 visible already at the trigger verb. The data nicely fit into the Linking-Updating model and support two main conclusions. First, presupposition accommodation is a sequential process unfolding through a biphasic ERP pattern presumably related to search for antecedent and discourse update. Second, the kind of presupposition trigger seems to affect the cognitive cost of presupposition accommodation at different processing times, with definite description capitalizing more on the earlier search for antecedent and change-of-state verbs capitalizing more on the later updating of the discourse mental model with the presupposed information. Overall, our findings suggest that the brain understands information taken for granted by going through a process whose time course involves several phases, differently modulated based on specific linguistic expressions.

Proof of program correctness based on Kripke structure

In order to prove program correctness conveniently,Kripke structure was introduced to propose the proof of program correctness.Kripke structure was redefined to be adequate for proof,and the approach of converting program flow chart to Kripke structure state diagram was described.The related theories of proof of program correctness and the method of proof of program correctness based on Kripke structure were also given.First the program flow chart was converted to state diagram,and then the state predicate in every state was listed according to the transformational relation between states.Finally,every state predicate was proved to be true.Proof through the state predicates can reflect the state of program execution.A whole proving process was carried out through an example.

Mining quantified temporal rules: Formalism, algorithms, and evaluation

Libraries usually impose constraints on how clients should use them. Often these constraints are not well-documented. In this paper, we address the problem of recovering such constraints automatically, a problem referred to as specification mining. Given some client programs that use a given library, we identify constraints on the library usage that are (almost) satisfied by the given set of clients.The class of rules we target for mining combines simple binary temporal operators with state predicates (composed of equality constraints) and quantification. This is a simple yet expressive subclass of temporal properties (LTL formulae) that allows us to capture many common API usage rules. We focus on recovering rules from execution traces and apply classical data mining concepts to be robust against bugs (API usage rule violations) in clients. We present new algorithms for mining rules from execution traces. We show how a propositional rule mining algorithm can be generalized to treat quantification and state predicates in a unified way. Our approach enables the miner to be complete (i.e. , mine all rules within the targeted class that are satisfied by the given traces) while avoiding an exponential blowup.We have implemented these algorithms and used them to mine API usage rules for several Windows APIs. Our experiments show the efficiency and effectiveness of our approach.

Aspectual coercion and the typology of change of state predicates

The point of departure of this paper is the consideration of how words with the meanings of property concept states (states that are lexicalized as adjectives in languages that have that lexical category, cf. Dixon 1982), e.g. ‘red’, are related to words denoting their corresponding change of state, e.g. ‘redden’. It is shown that while many languages relate words with these meanings to one another via some morpholexical process, this is not so in the Polynesian language Tongan. A detailed case study shows that in this language there are no non-causative change of state lexemes based on property concepts. Rather, these meanings are derived pragmatically from verbs denoting the corresponding state via aspectual coercion (Moens & Steedman 1988, Jackendoff 1997, de Swart 1998, Zucchi 1998, Michaelis 2004). This finding is shown to have consequences for the understanding of the typology of change of state predicates (Koontz-Garboden 2005, 2006, Koontz-Garboden & Levin 2005) and for theories of event structure: (a) the typological space is broader than previously thought and (b) theories of event structure need to be reconsidered in order to account for the postlexical derivation of meaning.

Question-guided stubborn set methods for state properties

This paper presents two stubborn set methods for alleviating the state explosion problem when reasoning about state properties. The first method makes it possible to determine whether a state of the system is reachable in which a given state predicate holds. The second method makes it possible to determine if from all reachable states it is possible to reach a state where a given state predicate holds. The novelty of the two methods is that they rely on so-called up sets and down sets rather than the notion of visible transitions which causes earlier methods to give only limited reduction of the state space, especially when considering state predicates referring to many of the state variables of the system. The suggested stubborn set methods have been implemented in the LoLA tool, and we report on some experimental results obtained with this computer tool together with some general guidance for applying the two question-guided stubborn set methods and their different implementations in verification. The two methods are presented in the context of Petri Nets, but are applicable also to other state and action oriented modelling formalisms for which the basic stubborn set theory is applicable.

The Aspect Hypothesis: Development of Morphology and Appropriateness of Use

According to the aspect hypothesis (Andersen & Shirai, 1996; Bardovi-Harlig, 2000), perfective morphology emerges before imperfective morphology, it is first used in telic predicates (achievements and accomplishments) and it later extends to atelic predicates (activities and states). The opposite development is hypothesized for imperfective morphology. This study proposes to investigate the emergence of preterite and imperfect morphology in Catalan to examine if the aspectual characteristics of predicates can account for the emergence of morphology and also appropriate use. Past verbal forms in narratives produced by three multilingual learners of Catalan as a foreign language were coded for appropriateness of use, morphology, and lexical aspect. An aspectual analysis of the data provided support for the aspect hypothesis, because achievement and accomplishment predicates in general were inflected for preterite morphology more frequently than were activity and state predicates, and the opposite was found for the emergence of imperfect morphology. The aspectual trends, however, varied for individual learners, tasks, and developmental stages. An analysis of the appropriate use of preterite and imperfect forms showed that morphology was used appropriately in almost all contexts. Prototypical combinations of morphology and aspect tended to be used more appropriately than nonprototypical combinations, as supported by other studies (Cadierno, 2000; Camps, 2002; Giacalone-Ramat, 2002).

A method for the modular synthesis of controllers for timed discrete-event systems

A method for the modular supervisory control of timed discrete-event systems (TDES) is presented. The modular synthesis method is an extension of the centralized synthesis method proposed in our earlier work. We consider a state predicate specification as a conjunction of several state subpredicate specifications. The control problem is to synthesize a modular controller, the conjunction of all individual controllers, in such a way that the closed-loop behaviour of TDES satisfies the state predicate specification. Our modular synthesis method is developed based on the concept of state space of TDES, the notion of control-invariant state predicates for the TDES and a fixed point algorithm to calculate a control-invariant state subpredicate of a given state predicate. In addition, for the development of our modular synthesis method, we introduce the notion of control-invariance non-conflict among control-invariant state predicates, and the notion of forcing-non-conflict among controllers synthesized based on control-invariant state predicates which are control-invariance non-conflicting. The modular synthesis method in general offers better design flexibility and may require fewer computations than the centralized one. As in our centralized synthesis method, the proposed modular synthesis method does not require the construction and examination of complete sequences of event trajectories of the system. It is suggested that the computation of our proposed method of yielding solutions for a class of synthesis problems in TDES can be economical.

A tool based approach to checking logical consistency in accident reports

Abstract In this paper, we present a technique to analyse consistency in accident reports. This is achieved using the prototype verification system. The relevant evidence and the rules for normal behaviour are coded as axioms. These axioms are then used to identify the cause of the accident. The key aspect of our work is to describe the system using a notion of states and state predicates. We show that our technique can be used in conjunction with other formal methods used to analyse accident reports.

Use of cognitive state predicates by language‐impaired children

AbstractTwo studies of the use of cognitive state predicates by children with specific language impairment (SLI) were conducted. Study I analysed longitudinal language samples collected from 26 children with SLI and 25 children with normal language (NL) development, aged 4;4 and 2;11, respectively, at Time I. Study II analysed samples from SLI children with more severe delays at an earlier language stage. There were 10 SLI children and 10 NL children, aged 4;11 and 2;8, respectively, matched by MLU. All cognitive state predicates were identified using both broad and narrow definitions. In Study I, the SLI children used cognitive state predicates less frequently than their mental age peers, and with no greater frequency or variety than their younger, language peers. In Study II, children with SLI used more predicates referring to communication events, but there were no further group differences. These findings are discussed as they relate to two current psycholinguistic issues: the possible dissociation of grammar and the lexicon, and the role of language in the development of children's theory of mind.