Chiapas Research Articles

Toxigenic fungi collected in maize fields from four states of Mexico

Maize is the most important crop for the Mexican society. Phytopathogenic fungi pose a major challenge to this cereal. These fungi are harmful to people and animals, mainly as a result of their mycotoxins. The objective of this research was to identify the fungi found in 18 maize genotypes collected in fields from the states of Morelos, Coahuila, Chiapas, and Puebla, Mexico. Pathogens were isolated in potato dextrose agar (PDA) culture medium and identified using morphological criteria. The pathogens were purified using monoconidial cultures and sheltered at 4 °C ± 2 °C. An analysis of variance was carried out using the SAS® 9.1 statistical software. Fungi from the following genus and species were identified: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, Bipolaris, Trichothecium roseum, and Fusarium verticillioides. It is worth mentioning that F. verticillioides and Penicillium sp. are the most common pathogens in maize genotypes, with an incidence of 63.68 and 6.57%, respectively. Moreover, along with genus Aspergillus, they are considered to be the most important toxicological fungi, given the harm that they cause to humans and animals. Therefore, management strategies are needed to guarantee that grains can be safely consumed by society

Towards a critical discourse and narratives of resistance in the Mayan Zoque symbolic region. Three cases of alternative identities

This article proposes an analysis of human communication, through a materialist reading of semiotics and culture, capable of accounting for the construction and possibility of critical discourses with which to deal with the emptying of meaning of imposed symbols or degraded in their expressive authenticity by the logic of globalized culture. Through the construction (identification) of the Zoque Mayan symbolic region of the state of Chiapas, we will have the possibility of expanding the horizon of significance of the symbols and alternative interpretations that are available, both in long memory practices, as well as in artistic expressions. Searching with the above, to find the way for the institutionalization of different subjective identities, critical or contrary to what is imposed in societies of postmodern peripheral capitalism, as is the case of the Zoque Mayan region of the state of Chiapas.

Identification and characterization of microsatellites in isolates of Peronospora tabacina collected in tobaccoproducing states of Mexico

Peronospora tabacina is considered the main limiting factor in tobacco production worldwide. In Mexico, information on the genetic diversity of this pathogen is scarce; therefore, the objective of this research was to evaluate 12 microsatellites in 20 isolates collected in the states of Nayarit, Chiapas, and Veracruz. PCR amplification and sequencing of these microsatellites were performed; as well as the alignment and comparison of the sequences deposited in the GenBank database. A total of 19 isolates showed amplification for the 12 microsatellites evaluated, while in one of the isolates, the amplification of two microsatellites was not observed, it being possible to determine that P. tabacina isolates present in Nayarit, Chiapas, and Veracruz are genetically homogeneous. Regions of dinucleotides were observed, most corresponding to (GT)n repeat motifs or (TG)n variations, as well as (AC)n, (CA)n, (AT)n and (AG)n motifs. The isolates analyzed in this study can be considered products of clonal lines, therefore no genetic diversity was found in these isolates.

Molecular detection of Wolbachia and Bartonella as part of the microbiome of phlebotomine sand flies from Chiapas, Mexico

Phlebotomine sand flies are dipterans of relevance due to their role as vectors of several pathogens worldwide. Bacteria in the gut of sand flies possibly affect their vectorial capacity and competence to transmit parasites. A retrospective study was performed in sand fly specimens that had previously been collected in four localities of the state of Chiapas during the period 2009–2011 to detect Wolbachia and Bartonella and their possible coinfection with Leishmania. For the molecular detection of bacteria, we used primers and conditions that had previously been reported. A total of 531 sand fly specimens of 10 species were analyzed. Four Wolbachia strains were detected in five sand fly species, showing a prevalence of 8.6%. All the Wolbachia strains had previously been reported in other taxa. In one sand fly species, we also detected a new lineage of Bartonella evidenced by a phylogenetic analysis. No sand fly specimens showed coinfections of these bacteria and Leishmania. The bacteria found in the phlebotomine sand flies are possibly transmitted by plant-mediated horizontal transmission and during blood meal feeding.

Population genetic structure of the maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, in southern Mexico.

The maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, is a ubiquitous pest of maize and other cereal crops worldwide and remains a threat to food security in subsistence communities. Few population genetic studies have been conducted on the maize weevil, but those that exist have shown that there is very little genetic differentiation between geographically dispersed populations and that it is likely the species has experienced a recent range expansion within the last few hundred years. While the previous studies found little genetic structure, they relied primarily on mitochondrial and nuclear microsatellite markers for their analyses. It is possible that more fine-scaled population genetic structure exists due to local adaptation, the biological limits of natural species dispersal, and the isolated nature of subsistence farming communities. In contrast to previous studies, here, we utilized genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism data to evaluate the genetic population structure of the maize weevil from the southern and coastal Mexican states of Oaxaca and Chiapas. We employed strict SNP filtering to manage large next generation sequencing lane effects and this study is the first to find fine-scale genetic population structure in the maize weevil. Here, we show that although there continues to be gene flow between populations of maize weevil, that fine-scale genetic structure exists. It is possible that this structure is shaped by local adaptation of the insects, the movement and trade of maize by humans in the region, geographic barriers to gene flow, or a combination of these factors.

Elaphomycescastilloi (Elaphomycetaceae, Ascomycota) and Entolomasecotioides (Entolomataceae, Basidiomycota), two new sequestrate fungi from tropical montane cloud forest from south Mexico.

Two new species of sequestrate fungi are described from south Mexico based on morphological and molecular evidences. Here we describe Elaphomycescastilloi characterized by the yellowish mycelial mat, dull blue gleba and ascospores of 9.7-11.5 µm; Entolomasecotioides is characterized by the secotioid basidiomata, sulcate, pale cream pileus, and basidiospores of 7-13 × 5-9 µm. Both species grow in montane cloud forest under Quercus sp. in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. Descriptions, photographs, and multilocus phylogeny for both species are presented.

“Variable Effects of Tourist Presence on the Activity Budget of Alouatta pigra”

Background and Research Wildlife tourism has been considered a useful tool for conservation in some contexts and found to cause diverse effects on biodiversity. We investigated the effect of the number of tourists on wild black howler monkeys’ ( Alouatta pigra) behavior at the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve (MABR), in the Lacandona forest in Mexico. Methods We used 5-min focal animal sampling, during dry and rainy seasons. We recorded five common behaviors in three wild groups naturally exposed to different degrees of human disturbance (Station, River and Board) without tourists, 5 and 10 tourists. Results Five and 10 tourists increased locomoting and reduced socializing, however, differently affected activities’ allocation time in the monkeys’ groups: in Board, 10 tourists reduced monkeys feeding; ii) in River, 10 tourists reduced socializing; and iii) in Station, 5 tourists increased feeding and reduced socializing, and 10 tourists reduced socializing. Conclusions Watching tourism activities affect behavior differently in groups of Alouatta pigra in the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve in in the Mexican state of Chiapas, emphasizing the importance of regulating tourism programs for the conservation of endangered species. Implications for Conservation Although longer-term studies controlling for additional variables are needed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of tourism on wild howler populations, the results from this study remain valuable as a baseline for understanding such effects and for proposing initial strategies to reduce tourism-induced disturbance.

Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Peptides Derived from L1 Protein Against Bovine Papillomavirus-1/2 Identified Along Mexico's Cattle Export Route.

Bovine papillomatosis affects animal health and represents one of the greatest economic losses in the livestock sector. New control and prevention methods to protect the livestock industry from this disease are necessary. The aim of this study was to evaluate a candidate peptide for antibody production against bovine papillomavirus (BPV). A total of 64 cattle underwent wart excision among 5,485 cattle distributed over 2 to 4 farms per state and 12 farms in total in the four Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Veracruz, and Nuevo León. The prevalence of bovine papillomatosis per farm was calculated by wart visualisation. The warts were genotyped by PCR and sequenced, then a phylogenetic tree was built using MEGA X software. A synthetic peptide was designed in the ABCpred, Bepipred 2.0, Bepipred IDBT, Bepitope, LBtope, and MHC II predictor online server software's based on the C-terminal region of the L1 protein. Mice antibody production was induced by subcutaneous immunisation with 50 μg of synthetic peptide and evaluated by indirect ELISA. The prevalence of BPV was higher in Tabasco, Chiapas, and Veracruz. Bovine papillomaviruses 1 and 2 were found in all representative samples. A phylogenetic tree showed that Mexican sequences were located in exclusive clades yet were highly related to international ones. The peptide immunisation induced antibody titres of 1 : 10,000/1 : 1,000,000 against synthetic peptide and whole wart lysate (WWL), respectively. Co-infections of BPV-1 and -2 were found in all four states. Immunisation of BALB/C mice with BPV-1/2-derived synthetic peptide based on the C-terminal region of the major viral capsid protein L1 induced the production of specific antibodies able to recognise BPV-1/2 viral particles from bovine WWL.

Resistance to Pyrethroids in the Malaria Vector Anopheles albimanus in Two Important Villages in the Soconusco Region of Chiapas, Mexico, 2022.

Chiapas State comprises the largest malaria foci from Mexico, and 57% of the autochthonous cases in 2021, all with Plasmodium vivax infections, were reported in this State. Southern Chiapas is at constant risk of cases imported due to migratory human flow. Since chemical control of vector mosquitoes is the main entomological action implemented for the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases, this work aimed to investigate the susceptibility of Anopheles albimanus to insecticides. To this end, mosquitoes were collected in cattle in two villages in southern Chiapas in July-August 2022. Two methods were used to evaluate the susceptibility: the WHO tube bioassay and the CDC bottle bioassay. For the latter, diagnostic concentrations were calculated. The enzymatic resistance mechanisms were also analyzed. CDC diagnostic concentrations were obtained; 0.7 μg/mL deltamethrin, 12 μg/mL permethrin, 14.4 μg/mL malathion, and 2 μg/mL chlorpyrifos. Mosquitoes from Cosalapa and La Victoria were susceptible to organophosphates and to bendiocarb, but resistant to pyrethroids, with mortalities between 89% and 70% (WHO), and 88% and 78% (CDC), for deltamethrin and permethrin, respectively. High esterase levels are suggested as the resistance mechanism involved in the metabolism of pyrethroids in mosquitoes from both villages. Mosquitoes from La Victoria might also involve cytochrome P450. Therefore, organophosphates and carbamates are suggested to currently control An. albimanus. Its use might reduce the frequency of resistance genes to pyrethroids and vector abundance and may impede the transmission of malaria parasites.

Presence of Spodoptera frugiperda Multiple Nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfMNPV) Occlusion Bodies in Maize Field Soils of Mesoamerica.

The occlusion bodies (OBs) of lepidopteran nucleopolyhedroviruses can persist in soil for extended periods before being transported back on to the foliage for transmission to the host insect. A sensitive insect bioassay technique was used to detect OBs of Spodoptera frugiperda multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (SfMNPV) in 186 soil samples collected from maize fields in the southern Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo, as well Belize and Guatemala. Overall, 35 (18.8%) samples proved positive for SfMNPV OBs. The frequency of OB-positive samples varied significantly among Mexican states and countries (p < 0.05). Between 1.7 and 4.4% of S. frugiperda larvae that consumed OB-positive samples died from polyhedrosis disease. Restriction endonuclease analysis using PstI and HindIII confirmed that the soil-derived isolates were strains of SfMNPV and that genetic diversity was evident among the isolates. The prevalence of OB-positive soil samples did not differ with altitude or extension (area) of the maize field, but it was significantly higher in fields with the presence of living maize plants compared to those containing dead plants or crop residues (p < 0.05). Georeferenced soil samples were used to identify soil types on digitized soil maps. Lithosol and Luvisol soils had a higher than average prevalence of OB-positive samples (42-45% positive) (p = 0.006), as did Andosol, Gleysol, and Vertisol soils (33-60% OB-positive), although the sample sizes were small (<5 samples) for the latter three soils. In contrast, Cambisol soils had a lower than average prevalence of OB-positive samples (5% positive). Bioassays on Acrisol, Fluvisol, Phaeozem, and Rendzina soils resulted in intermediate levels of OB-positive samples. We conclude that certain soil types may favor OB persistence and virus-mediated biological pest control. The soil is also likely to provide a valuable source of genetic diversity for the design of virus-based insecticides against this pest.

The larva, pupa, and female and male genitalia of Aedes (Howardina) <br>guatemala Berlin, 1969 (Diptera: Culicidae)

Aedes (Howardina) guatemala Berlin, 1969 was recently recorded in Mexico. Based on material collected in Chiapas State, the larva, pupa, and female and male genitalia of this species are described for the first time.

Habitat type affects the structure but not the composition of dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) assemblages in a tropical deciduous forest of southeastern Mexico

Abstract In this study, we compared the Scarabaeinae (Coleoptera) assemblages between two contrasting habitats (conserved forest versus urban habitat), located between the boundary of an urban zone and a protected area within the Mexican state of Chiapas. We collected 1003 individuals of 22 species and 12 genera. The composition of assemblages was similar between habitats, with a high species dominance. However, the identity of the dominant species differed between habitats, with 11 species considered indicators of one of the two conditions (five species in the conserved forest sites and six species in urban habitat sites), whereas three other species exhibited generalist habits. Large paracoprids predominate in the conserved forest, and small paracoprids in the urban habitat. The apparent homogeneity in the dung beetle assemblages probably is due to the high density of domestic and feral animals replacing native mammals and is promoted by the loss of forest-dependent species caused by continuous landscape fragmentation. Nonetheless, the association of some species with forest habitat and the differences in the structure of functional groups indicate the importance of conserving these forest remnants, which would help to mitigate the negative impact of urbanised areas, as these species are generally sensitive to the habitat fragmentation process.

A new Mesozoic teleost of the subfamily Albulinae (Albuliformes: Albulidae) highlights the proto-Gulf of Mexico in the early diversification of extant bonefishes

We present a new fossil species of the order Albuliformes, †Macabi tojolabalensis gen. et sp. nov., from Campanian outcrops of Chiapas state, south-eastern Mexico. The number of branchiostegal rays, a fusion of the lower hypural elements in the caudal-fin skeleton, and the two types of cycloid scales over the body are features that separate this new taxon from other members of the order. Its inclusion in a phylogenetic analysis including fossil and extant species shows that †Macabi tojolabalensis gen. et sp. nov. is closely related to the extant Albula vulpes. The biogeographical analysis shows four distinct regions of bonefish diversification during the Cretaceous and identifies the proto-Gulf of Mexico as an important place to understand the early divergence of living albuliformes. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:83FA8C48-B9CF-4C6D-9943-818A28A5A113

Elementy magii i religii w rzeczywistości społecznej kapitalizmu

The article is dedicated to the issue of magic and religion in the social reality of capitalism. The goal of the article is to present examples proving that capitalism in various places (post-communist Central Europe, San Cristobal in the Mexican state of Chiapas, Colombian department Valle del Cauca, New York) and at various times (from the 1970s to the second decade of the 21st century) was associated with elements of religion and magic through social thinking and practice, and therefore elements of social reality. On the other hand, in the discourse, capitalism is often presented as a part of nature: the existence that acts objectively, like the laws of physics. In the article, this apparent contradiction is presented as a dialectical aspect of the present day, in which the discourse and social reality are complementary.

MEXICAN EXPERIENCES OF B. TRAVEN: THE POSSIBILITY OF IMAGOLOGICAL READING

The article presents the historical-literary analysis of The Cotton-Pickers (Die Baumwollpflücker), the first novel by the German writer B. Traven, who spent most of his intellectual life living and writing (in German) in Mexico, where he died, and focused his main works on the life of the native people of the state of Chiapas. The Cotton-Pickers did not emphasize the issue of the native population, whose representatives only appear episodically in the text, and described the experience of the author-narrator who recently arrived in Mexico in his search for work. Until today, this novel has been analyzed mainly as an autobiographical text and from a sociological perspective, highlighting the author's leftist attitude. However, it has not been taken into account how B. Traven is creating, throughout the narrative, a cultural image of the country that enchanted him throughout his life. The social and cultural aspects of the Mexican Revolution, those that attracted the author who, at the same time, does not stop being critical about the current state of things, are highlighted too. In this way, an imagological perspective is proposed in the reception of the work. Likewise, despite the fact that B. Traven's researchers always underlined his leftist orientation (anarchist in nature) in the reception of this revolution, few were those who valued the emphasis he placed on the role of the native population in the revolutionary process. Meanwhile, B. Traven described the role and destiny of the Indians in the revolution earlier than Mexican-born writers did it. It was he who wrote the first novels in Mexico that presented the Indians as active participants in the revolutionary processes. And it was also he who placed special emphasis on the autochthonous component as the spiritual core of the Mexican nation and on its role in the hopeful future of the country.

Ceratozetidae (Acari: Oribatida) from lower Miocene mexican amber, including a new species of Trichoribates

Trichoribates roynortoni Ojeda and Rivas sp. n. Is described based on one adult specimen preserved in estuarine stratified lower Miocene amber from the Campo La Granja mines, La Quinta Formation, Chiapas Mexico, which includes mostly estuarine aquatic and semiaquatic animals, but also an important amount of soil arthropods. This taxon is the first record for the Ceratozetidae family (Acari: Sarcoptiformes: Oribatida) and represents an addition to the few Acari reported for the Chiapas amber.

Ground-Motion Similarities in the Valley of Mexico from Subduction Earthquakes

ABSTRACT Since the eighties, several subduction earthquakes on the Mexican Pacific coast have been recorded at accelerometric networks in the Valley of Mexico (VM). Such are the cases of the 19 September 1985 M 8.1 Michoacán earthquake and the recent 7 September 2021 M 7.1 Guerrero earthquake. These events have caused from minor damages to widespread structural collapses in the VM. The vertical ground motion recorded at several sites in the VM clearly show recurrent Rayleigh wavetrains, which present similar characteristics in period, amplitude, and duration among stations. These characteristics are very stable in space and time. On the other hand, the corresponding horizontal ground motion are strongly affected by the surface geology of the valley because of the shear wave-energy trapped at the uppermost soft layers. In addition, the horizontal response at several soft-ground sites displays significant azimuthal effects. Based on these observations, we analyze thrust-faulting subduction earthquakes that occurred along the Mexican Pacific coast from Michoacán to Chiapas states, all recorded at the VM accelerometric networks. We identified similarities in the vertical and horizontal ground motion not only among stations but also between seismic events recorded at the same station. The local generation of surface waves is studied using a kinematic analysis in the frequency–wavenumber domain (f-k), and sundry techniques in frequency and time domains. As a preliminary explanation, our analysis suggests that azimuthal effects related to thrust faulting subduction earthquakes strongly influence the local generation of surface waves affecting the 3D response of the valley. Moreover, for all earthquakes in all stations, our results show that while the vertical ground motion is similar and its amplifications are small and governed by earthquake size, the two horizontal components reveal strong site effects.

Current outlook after 4 years since the beginning of interventional cardiology in congenital heart disease in Chiapas State

As a result of technological advances, more and more types of congenital heart diseases are susceptible to being treated in the hemodynamic laboratory. The sum of more advanced imaging techniques as well as the development of a diversity of devices specially manufactured for use in children has allowed a better selection of patients and therefore that many of them can be corrected through cardiac catheterization or some patients with more complex congenital heart diseases require fewer surgical procedures or, if they do require them, that these may be of less complexity and risk.We decided to show the global experience of the interventionism in congenital heart diseases in Chiapas from its inception to recent days.Through a retrospective study from April 2016 to August 2020, we reviewed the electronic files of the total of patients who underwent cardiac catheterism during the same period of time.A total of 510 procedures were performed, 300 in female patients, with a median age of 4 years (8 days - 77 years). Of the total procedures, 67 (13.1%) were diagnostic catheterizations and 443 (86.9%) were interventional.Cardiac catheterization in congenital heart disease in Chiapas has become a very valuable option with encouraging results which represents a possible decentralization in the care of congenital heart diseases in our country.Como resultado de avances tecnológicos, cada vez más tipos de cardiopatías congénitas son susceptibles a ser tratadas en el laboratorio de hemodinamia. La suma de técnicas de imagen más avanzadas, así como el desarrollo de una diversidad de dispositivos especialmente fabricados para su uso en niños ha permitido una mejor selección de pacientes y, por ende, que muchos de ellos pueden ser corregidos en su totalidad por medio de cateterismo cardiaco o bien que algunos pacientes con enfermedades cardiacas más complejas requieran menos procedimientos quirúrgicos o si los requieren, que estos sean de menor complejidad y riesgo.Decidimos mostrar la experiencia global de la hemodinamia en cardiopatías congénitas en Chiapas desde sus inicios hasta últimas fechas.Mediante un estudio retrospectivo que abarcó de abril de 2016 a agosto de 2020 revisamos los expedientes electrónicos del total de pacientes que fueron llevados a cateterismo cardiaco durante ese periodo de tiempo.Un total de 510 procedimientos fueron llevados a cabo, 300 en pacientes del sexo femenino, con una mediana de edad de 4 años (8 días - 77 años). Del total de procedimientos, 67 (13.1%) fueron cateterismos diagnósticos y 443 (86.9%) intervencionistas.El cateterismo cardiaco en cardiopatías congénitas en el Estado de Chiapas se ha convertido en una opción muy valiosa con resultados bastante alentadores, lo cual representa ya una posible descentralización en la atención de las cardiopatías congénitas en nuestro país.

Exploring the complexity of smallholders' intense use of glyphosate in maize crops from South Mexico: Remarks for an ongoing agroecological transition

Recently, Mexico has launched policies of agroecological transition that seek to foster healthier agri-food systems. One of these policies is the reduction and eventual elimination of glyphosate by 2024. Despite being the most used herbicide in Mexico and the world, little information exists about what factors determine a greater or reduced use of glyphosate in different socio-ecological contexts. This study aimed to explore different agricultural management, biophysical and social variables and their effects on glyphosate use in maize crops by smallholders (<8 ha). A questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were performed with 142 farmer families in four regions of the state of Chiapas to document the use of herbicides and glyphosate. By using regression trees, we identified those variables that determine a greater or lesser use of glyphosate for each region and jointly. The average volume of glyphosate for the four regions during an agricultural cycle was 2.7 l/ha−1. Sets of variables were associated with syndromes of greater use of glyphosate and herbicides in general, such as small plots (<0.67 ha), indigenous population, younger farmers, fewer family members, rainfed conditions, and plots without mechanization. These results can help the design of contextualized and flexible policies of transition, consistent with the socio-ecological heterogeneity of Mexico.

Late Cretaceous–Miocene depositional evolution of Chiapas, Mexico: A foreland controlled by collision of Greater Antilles arc and the subsequent relative migration of the Chortís Block

New U–Pb and “double dating” (U–Pb and U–Th)/He) age determinations on detrital zircons from Upper Cretaceous–Miocene formations greatly improve our understanding of both evolutionary and clastic provenance models for southern Mexico and the western Caribbean. Samples from the Méndez, Ocozocoautla, Angostura, Tenejapa, Soyaló, El Bosque, San Juan, Nanchital Shale, Nanchital Conglomerate, Huamelula, and Ixtapa units in the western Sierra de Chiapas, Mexico, consistently indicate a south-to-north transport of clastic detritus from orogenic headlands into the Chiapas Foldbelt Basin and, presumably, the Sureste Basin (Gulf of Mexico). However, this interpretation is partly guided by 1) palinspastic reconstructions of the Chortís Block and fault slices of the North America–Caribbean plate boundary that restore to paleo-positions south of Oaxaca and Chiapas states and western Guatemala, and 2) published fission track data that indicate the Chiapas Massif was not a significant sediment source or barrier until the late middle Miocene. In addition, zircon data on volcanic breccias (magmatic?) from cores of supposed Cretaceous and Paleogene levels of the Salina Cruz wells indicate that today’s Gulf of Tehuantepec forearc is likely the “western tail” of the Chortís Block and represents a displaced segment of the Guerrero Arc of western Mexico. Analyses of key thin sections and one heavy mineral sample complete the data set. We find that Pacific-origin Caribbean models provide the necessary inferences for meaningful interpretation of our data, and, conversely, that our data on the various depositional units through time iteratively help to support Pacific-origin models. For example, our data from Chiapas supports 1) arc collision to the south in the Maastrichtian (Greater Antilles), and 2) the existence of Paleogene orogenic highlands south of the Chiapas Massif, interpreted here as the paleo-North America–Caribbean plate boundary zone.