Sport Skills Research Articles

Goalkeepers’ plasticity during learning of a whole-body visuomotor rotation in a stable or variable environment

ABSTRACT Postural adjustments performed in anticipation of uncertain visual events is a common sensorimotor control problem in open sport skills. In this study, we examined how expert soccer goalkeepers and non-athletes learn a whole body visuomotor rotation during postural tracking of constant and variable visual target motions. Twenty-one (21) soccer goalkeepers (18 ± 15 years, 75 ± 12 kg) and 25 age-matched non-athletes (18 ± 12 years, 75 ± 15 kg) practiced lateral weight shifting on a dual force platform while tracking the motion of a constant (11 goalkeepers and 12 non-athletes) or a variable (10 goalkeepers and 13 non-athletes) visual target with provision of online visual feedback (VF). After 40s of tracking (baseline), the visual presentation of the VF signal reversed direction relative to the participant’s motion (180° visuo-motor rotation) for 60s (adaptation) and then returned to its veridical direction for another 20s (washout). During adaptation, goalkeepers reduced the spatiotemporal error to baseline levels at an earlier time block (3rd block) compared to non-athletes (6th block), but this difference was significant only for groups tracking of the constant and not the variable target motion. Only the groups tracking the constant target increased the spatiotemporal error during the 1st washout block demonstrating a significant aftereffect. It is concluded that goalkeepers adapt faster to the feedback rotation due to their prior field knowledge of relevant visuomotor transformations in anticipation of deceptive visual cues. This expertise advantage however is present only in a stable visual environment possibly because learning is compromised when tracking uncertain motion cues requiring closed loop control. Highlights We examined how expert goalkeepers and non-athletes adopt to a novel whole body visuomotor rotation when tracking a constantly or variably moving target Goalkeepers adopted faster to the visuomotor rotation than non-athletes Expertise related differences were evident only for groups tracking the constant target motion Groups tracking the variable target motion did not learn the visuomotor rotation

Assessment of the properties of the nervous system in young martial artists

The article is devoted to the problem of assessing the properties of the nervous system of young martial artists. The aim is to study the properties of the nervous system of young martial artists to improve the effectiveness of the training process and increase the level of their sports skills (on the example of boxing).. The research was conducted on the basis of the Communal Extracurricular Educational Institution «Complex Children's and Youth Sports School for Boxing and Martial Arts» of the Dnipropetrovsk City Council during September-November 2022. The research involved 37 young athletes who trained in initial boxing training groups. Research methods: analysis of literary sources, E.P.Ilyin's method of express diagnosis of properties of the nervous system based on psychomotor indicators (tapping test) and methods of mathematical statistics. It was found that 8.1% of young athletes had an even type of nervous system, descending – 32.4%, intermediate – 18.9%, concave – 40.6%. No representatives of the convex (strong) type were found. 83.78% of young boxers had a weak nervous system and 16.22% had a strong one. Very high severity of weakness of the nervous system was observed in 59.5% of young athletes, high severity of the nervous system strength – 2,7%, high severity of the nervous system weakness - 5.4%, medium severity of the nervous system strength – 5, 4%, medium severity of the nervous system weakness – 13,5%, slight severity of the nervous system strength – 5,4% and average nervous system – 8,1% of young boxers.

Physical Education Skill Development of Individuals With Visual Impairments: A Preliminary Study

Evidence suggests that youth with visual impairments often experience exclusion from participation in physical education (PE). This study examined the frequency that individuals with visual impairments reported having learned fundamental motor skills and commonly taught PE sports skills, the importance that they ascribed to learning such skills, and their confidence that youth with visual impairments could master them. Adults with visual impairments completed an online questionnaire regarding their experiences with common PE skills. Data were analyzed through frequency analysis and repeated-measures analysis of covariance. Participants engaged most frequently in fundamental motor skills and least in team sports. Participants’ mean ratings of confidence and importance were highest for fundamental motor skills compared with other skill categories. Results regarding nonparticipation in some skills align with previous findings that youth with visual impairments often do not participate in all aspects of PE.

The Impact of Different Attentional Focus Strategies During Modeling on the Acquisition and Retention of Free Throws in Basketball

Background: In recent years, coaches and athletes have increasingly used observation as a tool for teaching and learning sports skills. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of modeling, using internal and external attentional focus strategies, on the acquisition and retention of free throw shooting in basketball. Methods: Forty-five female beginner basketball players (aged 21.62 ± 3.08 years, with a BMI of 23.48 ± 0.99 kg/m2) voluntarily participated in this study. Based on their pre-test scores using the ABBA method, they were divided into three groups: One group received modeling with an internal attention focus strategy, another group received modeling with an external attention focus strategy, and a control group. A video demonstrating the correct throwing technique was used to teach the attention-focusing strategies, and the groups did not receive any physical training. After watching the video, participants performed their own throwing attempts. Following group allocation, the participants entered the acquisition phase, which consisted of six sessions, with each session including two sets of ten attempts and a 2-minute rest period between sets. One-way analysis of variance was used for both immediate and delayed recall tests, and data analysis was conducted using SPSS 20 software.” Results: The study found a significant difference in free throw performance between the three modeling groups (internal attention focus, external attention focus, and control) during both the acquisition and delayed retention stages (P ≤ 0.05). Additionally, there was a significant difference in basketball free throw performance between the three modeling groups during the recall test (P ≤ 0.05). Conclusions: Overall, the results suggest that observational learning, combined with attentional focus strategies, is an effective method for improving skill acquisition and retention in basketball.

Ubiquitous skill opens opportunities for talent and expertise development.

In this article we aim to define and present the complementary nature of talent, skill and expertise. Human daily life is replete with expressions of skillful behaviours while interacting with the world, which in specific socio-culturally defined domains, such as sport and work, demand a specialization of such ubiquitous skill. Certain manifestations of ubiquitous skill are identified by experts from the specialized domain of sport with the label of "talent". In this paper we propose that "talent" is thus socially defined, considered identifiable at an early age and forms the basis for selection and entry at the starting point in domains like sport. Once an individual, defined as "talented" enters the "pathway" for participating in the sport domain, there begins an intense socialization process where training, evaluation, institutionalization and framing takes place for continued development of such talent. This is the formalised process of working on ubiquitous skills refining and changing them into specialized skills in sport. An ecological dynamics rationale is used to explain that this specialization approach is developed through a process of expert skill learning, which entails the stages of exploration and education of intention stabilization and perceptual attunement, and exploitation and calibration. Skill learning aims to develop potentiality and its expression in actuality, i.e., how learning is expressed in contextualized expert performance.

The Development of Cognitive Motivation and Adaptive Potential of Adolescents, Depending on the Conditions of Conducting Educational and Training Activities in Physical Culture and Sports in the System of Additional Education

The purpose of the article is to identify the features of the development of the personal potential of adolescents in the system of additional education of physical culture and sports orientation on the basis of psychophysiological and psychological and social characteristics of adolescent students. The interrelation between adaptive and developmental parameters of students engaged in various sports and non-sports is analyzed: the features of psychophysiological and personal indicators of adolescents engaged in school sports clubs and organizations of supplementary education of various sports profiles are investigated. Methodology. In the process of identifying the features of the adaptive and developing potential of adolescents engaged in school sports clubs of secondary schools and adolescents engaged in additional education organizations, we studied the parameters of physical development, psychosocial characteristics, taking into account internal and external development resources of students. The results of the study. The interrelation of cognitive activity and socio-psychological adaptation, cognitive activity and experience of physical culture and sports activities, sports skills among students of school sports clubs is established: the higher the level of socio-psychological adaptation, the more significant the experience of organized motor activity and the results of competitive activity, the higher the cognitive activity of students. It is shown that in the process of selecting students for youth sports, a significant place belongs to the motive of self-development and the motive of achievement. In conclusion, it is concluded that the obtained results clearly demonstrate that the integration of motor and cognitive activities, in addition to the social and health effect, contributes to the formation of cognitive motivation for self-development, aimed at activating the moral and normative values of individual socialization and ensuring the achievement of high educational and sports results.

초등학생 5-6학년의 체육수업에 대한 주관적 인식유형

This study aims to contribute to activating physical education classes and to realize the importance and know the inner value of elementary physical education with the Q methodology by identifying the types of 5th-6th graders in elementary school. 27 Q-samples and 40 P-samples were selected from 5th to 6th grade elementary school students.BR As a result of the research, they were classified into four types. Type 1: “Physical improvement and obesity prevention type” recognizes that physical education classes help to prevent obesity by improving overall physical function and keeping their bodies balanced through training their body, increasing strength through various physical movements. Type 2: “School life and exercise assistance type” represents that participation in physical education classes helps every student to practice a variety of sports skills, and do exercise during school life and free time. Type 3: “Class participation and sports interest type” considers physical education classes to lead to emotional stability and interest in sports through various exercise experiences with participating actively in physical education classes. Type 4: “Improving health and excessive competition type” indicates that physical education classes can help to learn how to manage their health and physical strength, improve health, while game-oriented classes with excessive competition cause a threat to their friendship.BR In conclusion, this study is thought to be used to design operations of physical education classes such as the contents and methods and improve the environment in physical education classes.BR

Development of strength qualities of throwers in track and field athletes using crossfit tools

The article examines the means and methods of using an indicative program for the development of the strength qualities of throwers in track and field athletes using crossfit tools. It is indicated that the use of a training program to increase strength qualities using Crossfit equipment gives a positive effect that is significantly higher than when implementing a standard training program for throwers, which is clearly confirmed by the improvement of strength qualities and sports achievements of the throwers of the experimental group, which gives be able to recommend an experimental program for use in the educational and training process of groups for improving sports skills in institutions of higher education, DYSSH, DYSSHOR and in specialized educational institutions of a sports profile. It is indicated that the significant growth of sports achievements, high competition, expansion of the competition calendar, changes in the conditions of competitive activity, require improvement of the structure and organization of the training process in athletics throwing. An important step in the development of movement qualities, in particular strength, in training classes can be the introduction of a type of movement activity that is gaining popularity in Ukraine - CrossFit. From the generally accepted method of developing the strength qualities required in athletics throwing, crossfit training complexes differ in high intensity, a significant number of varieties of jumping, exercises with weights, performing exercises at a fast pace. According to scientists, crossfit is a type of fitness, the program of which includes functional complex exercises of power orientation, performed in an aerobic mode in a zone of high intensity. Other scientists believe that crossfit is an extreme system of general physical training, based on basic movements from different sports, which are constantly alternating. In other words, CrossFit can be described as a program of strength exercises consisting of "functional exercises of high intensity that are constantly changing", the ultimate goal of which is to improve the general physical shape, reaction and readiness for any life situation that requires active physical activities.

The Effect of Mental Fatigue on the Accuracy of the Direct Free Kick in Terms of Some Kinematic Variables for Football Players

Background: Mental fatigue is one of the phenomena associated with the skillful sports performance of football players. There is a link between mental fatigue and the quality of skillful performance. It occurs during or after a mental activity, which is reflected in a decrease in physical fitness and a reduction in the ability to focus. Objectives: This study was designed to find the association between mental fatigue and skill performance by inferring the kinematic variables. Sports skills demand excellent performance that is connected to mindfulness. Mental weariness impacts a person’s ability to perform physically and skillfully in a sport, especially if that performance requires high accuracy and intensity. Methods: The empirical research consisted of 24 players specializing in direct free kicks. Test for the accuracy of free kick shooting, a mental fatigue experiment, and a re-test of direct free kick shooting was performed and analyzed through Kinovea 0.9.5 software. Results: The mean difference in the fatigue level of players before and after concerning the kinematic variables among football players was found to be statistically significant (P-value < 0.001). Conclusions: The study recommended developing programs that support the mental stability of the player during matches to be able to continue the required skill performance, no matter how much mental fatigue he is exposed to, which occurs as a result of several circumstances during football matches.

The dilemma and countermeasures of online sports teaching under the background of big data and Internet of Things

With the continuous progress of data science, big data technology has been continuously integrated into human daily life. The application of big data technology in the field of education to improve the teaching and learning efficiency of teachers and students has become the focus of current scholars. With the popularization of the concept of the Internet of Everything, the Internet of Things technology has gradually become a hot spot for technology fans. It is widely used in home and body-worn devices. Applying the Internet of Things technology in the education field to obtain student status feedback data can make teachers more accurately understand the goals of student learning. The continuous raging of the epidemic has led to the change of many courses from offline face-to-face teaching to home online teaching, which has brought about a huge change in the traditional offline face-to-face physical education teaching method. Therefore, in order to better protect against the epidemic and prevent the spread of the epidemic more effectively, X Academy responded to the country’s call to “suspend classes without teaching, and without stopping learning”, so that physical education courses other than other cultural courses will be conducted offline and face-to-face. Teaching has changed to online physical education. This paper firstly defines the concepts of big data, Internet of Things and online physical education teaching, and then conducts research on the current situation and countermeasures of online physical education teaching. Find optimized countermeasures, so that X College can get better teaching results when it conducts online physical education teaching again in the face of similar public health emergencies in the future, allowing students to exercise, improve physical fitness, enhance sports skills, and enhance their own resistance. power goal. The research method of this paper mainly adopts the data analysis method of questionnaire survey and statistics. Through the second survey, it is found that all aspects of online physical education teaching have been improved after adopting the improved strategy.

Relationship between Perfectionism and Cognitive Components of Sportsmen’s Professional Skills

To achieve high results in sports, both motor and cognitive skills are important. However, the formation of cognitive components of sports activity can be influenced by personality traits, for example, such a multidimensional trait as perfectionism. The aim of the research was to determine the relationship between various parameters of perfectionism and the cognitive component of skill in sports. The study involved 311 athletes aged 14 to 32 years (M = 19.5; SD = 2.03). The following instruments were used in the study: The Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale 2 and The Three-Factor Questionnaire of Perfectionism (for diagnosing perfectionism); Questionnaire of Metacognitive Involvement in Activities (for diagnosing metacognitive involvement); and The Mental Image Inventory in Sports (to determine the frequency of using mental images). It has been shown that the athletes with more pronounced perfectionism are able to better understand and evaluate their performance; they can more accurately notice mistakes and more often use mental images in the training process. Also, as a result of a series of regression analyzes, it has been found that such parameters of perfectionism as “high personal standards” and “regime organization” affect the frequency of using cognitive and motivational images, as well as metacognitive involvement in the activities of the athletes who took part in the study. Thus, perfectionism has a significant impact on various parameters of the cognitive component of skill development, which in turn can affect the performance of an athlete in training and competition.

Optimizing training of students in gymnastic exercises in groups for improving sports skills

The article describes sports gymnastics as a leading means of physical education of student youth, which includes many different exercises, each of which consists of hundreds of movements in form and content. Modern sports gymnastics includes exercises with a complex coordination structure of movements, the athlete has to repeat the exercises many times, perform them intensively, often in conditions of fear of performing a complex exercise, which leads to various negative consequences in the conditions of educational and training classes. It is noted that the teaching of gymnastic exercises is based on the practical use of content and operational knowledge, on general didactic principles of the formation of movement skills and abilities. The special abilities that students should have in the process of learning gymnastic exercises are substantiated: coordination of movements, muscle strength, flexibility, speed of motor actions, speed and strength endurance, orientation in space, attention, memory of movements, emotional stability, determination and courage. The stages of the process of learning gymnastic exercises are highlighted: the formation of ideas about the exercise; unlearning the initial exercise to the level of motor skills; consolidating and improving a previously learned exercise to the level of a motor skill.

Analysis of the competitive activity of skaters at the stage of specialized basic training

The stage of specialized basic training is important in the further development of sports skills of male and female figure skaters. At this stage of training, mastering, and improving complex jumps, rotations, jumps in rotation, step paths and spirals, which will form the basis of high sports results in the future. Purpose: determination of the features of the competitive activity of figure skaters and the structure of ensuring the competitive result. Methodology: To solve the set goal and tasks of the research, a complex of interrelated methods was used, including methods of the theoretical level of research (analysis, comparison, induction, deduction, systematization and generalization of scientific and methodological literature, regulatory and legal documents and information resources of the Internet with problems of special training of skaters at the stage of specialized basic training in the preparatory period); empirical research methods (pedagogical observation, pedagogical experiment to determine the effectiveness of the developed program for improving the special physical training of skaters at the stage of specialized basic training in the preparatory period, evaluation of competitive activity, general and special physical fitness); mathematical statistics (factor analysis). Scientific novelty: The results of the factor analysis of ensuring the competitive result showed for the first time that the largest percentage of variance (46.24%) among skaters was attributed to the speed-power factor, 33.25% to the coordination factor, and 18.32% to the flexibility factor. In figure skaters, a slightly different factor structure of ensuring a competitive result was observed: in the first place was the coordination factor, the percentage of the total variance of which is equal to 43.66%, in the second place - the speed-power factor (30.69%), in the third place - the flexibility factor (19.65 %). Conclusions: at the stage of specialized basic training, coordination abilities and indicators of vestibular stability play the most important role in the success of competitive activity in figure skaters, and in figure skaters – speed and strength, which must be considered during the development of an experimental program for improving special physical fitness.

Instructional Leadership Best Practices in Coaching toward Bukit Jalil Sports School Excellence

Instructional leadership is a model that is often used in managing and administrating a school to influence, guide, and motivate teachers and students towards school excellence. Diverse family backgrounds, religion, and race are significant challenges for coaches and Bukit Jalil Sports School (BJSS) administrators to spur student athletes' excellence in sports. Therefore, the purpose of this write-up is to share the best practices in BJSS from the aspects of; i- monitoring and assessment of coaches' and student athletes’ performance ii- producing excellent coaches with calibre in their sports iii- applying of 3R element among coaches iv- consolidation of spiritual component among student-athletes. Implementing best practices is based on a few strategies, including centralised documentation, executing the lead by example concept, empowering sports coaching, concentration in sports development programs, internationalisation with sports excellence centres from overseas, and self-empowerment in student-athletes. This paper produced four aspects of best practices with the implementation of some programs, which are; a standard and organised documentation system, yearly training program presentations, coaching mentoring program, workshops by Master Coaches, specific sports skills clinic, development of training modules, international sports collaboration program and spiritual based program. The impact of these programs will be able to optimise students' outcomes, enhance the coaching profession and produce student-athletes with principles and identities. This achievement is aligned with aspirations stated in Wave 3 of National Education Blueprint 2013-2025, which drives Sekolahku SEJAHTERA.

Relationships between selected indices of postural stability and sports performance in elite badminton players: Pilot study.

The main aim of this study was to determine the relationships between postural stability and the place in the ranking of badminton players. The study examined 10 elite players from Polish national badminton team. The scope of the study included basic somatic characteristics, such as body height, body weight, BMI, and training experience. A Microgate GYKO inertial sensor system was used to assess the postural stability of athletes. Using Spearman's rank correlation, cause-and-effect relationships between the place in the sports ranking and the analyzed variables characterizing postural stability were recognized. Depending on the distribution and homogeneity of variance, the significance of differences in variables that characterize postural stability between players of different sports skill levels (two groups) was calculated. The Student's t-test or Mann-Whitney's U-test was used for this purpose. In general, the athletes with higher positions on the ranking list presented a higher level of postural stability in both tests, which is also confirmed by the normalized values. However, for all variables of postural stability, no statistically significant correlations with sports ranking were observed. Higher values of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were found for the test performed in the one-foot standing test compared to the two-foot test. The results obtained indicate that particular attention in badminton training should be paid to the development of the level of postural stability in order to improve sports performance.

Skill competencies and problems of student-athletes under the new normal in the secondary school in the Philippines

COVID-19 occurred in 2019 in China, and in 2020, a pandemic was declared by World Health Organization. A global disaster affecting the education system. The study aimed to determine problems encountered, solutions undertaken, and skill competencies of the student-athletes of Castillejos National High School (CNHS) under the new normal. The researcher utilized a quantitative descriptive research design with a questionnaire as the main instrument in gathering data from fifty student-athletes who were randomly selected. On average, student-athletes attained an Intermediate (2.15) level of sports skills. This indicates that the student-athletes, as measured by the rubrics, had not reached the highest level in terms of acquiring sports skills during the time of the pandemic. This may be a result of the limited time of interactions among the students together with the sports coordinators or teachers due to the restriction of the safety health protocols and the restriction of face-to-face meetings. Thus, Teachers and parents or guardians may focus on guiding the student-athletes to solve their problems to further motivate them in enhancing their sports skills.

THE IMPACT OF AEROBICS ON THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF STUDENTS

The article reveals the influence of aerobics on the physical condition of students. The physical condition of student youth who regularly attend aerobics classes was analyzed. In the process of numerous studies in the field of physical education and sports, morphological and functional indicators were found that characterize the improvement of the physical condition of students who specialize in aerobics. Use of visual and verbal cues in conjunction with demonstration exercises are most often recommended during initial training. Importantly, for the teacher to control the quality of the students' performance of the exercises and to use various methods of information regarding the results of their actions. It there may be corrective information about the biomechanical characteristics of movements (speed, amplitude, direction, etc.), evaluation information (about efficiency, responsibility to aesthetic standards and other characteristics). The assessment should have a positive, energizing color. Peculiarities of the human constitution attract the close attention of researchers when studying the factors of success in high-achieving sports. Among the large number of constitutional indicators, the most interesting are the morpho-functional features of the athlete's body. They affect the manifestation of strength, flexibility, speed, endurance, work capacity and adaptation of the body to various conditions of the external environment, the speed of recovery after physical and mental stress. Therefore, the analysis of literary sources and numerous studies broadens the understanding of the importance of a comprehensive approach to the selection of the most promising athletes who practice aerobics. Indicators will increase the development of sports skills testify to more perfect mechanisms and regularities of the process of adaptation of athletes to physical exertion, thereby confirming the need to take into account the individual and morphofunctional characteristics of the body.

IMPROVEMENT OF TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL ACTIONS IN OLYMPIC TYPES OF MARTIAL ARTS

At the current stage of the development of martial arts in Ukraine and in the world, urgent issues of scientific and methodological support of the system of multi-year training of martial arts athletes, starting from the early stages of training, are gaining importance. Martial arts specialists need to search for the most rational and effective means and methodical approaches to the formation and improvement of the technical and tactical arsenal of athletes. The purpose of such an approach will be to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the competitive activity of martial arts athletes.
 The stage of specialized basic training in sports martial arts acquires great importance in connection with the creation of prerequisites for the further improvement of sports skills of young athletes, increase of the level of special work capacity. Also, at this stage, the individual fighting style is formed, as well as the technique and tactics of the Taekwondo WTF are improved.
 Technical and tactical training in Taekwondo WTF is a process of forming the technique of performing special exercises, techniques and their various combinations. Technical training is aimed at studying the widest range of technical actions and forming the skills of performing actions necessary for Taekwondo WTF, different in direction, amplitude and other characteristics. The means of technical training are the technical actions of Taekwondo WTF (according to the classification of techniques), which include offensive, defensive and contact-attacking technical-tactical actions.
 The main goal of the study is to evaluate the effectiveness of using training methods and improving counterattacking technical and tactical actions using the example of Taekwondo WTF. The following research methods were used during the study: abstraction, analysis and synthesis, modeling, pedagogical observation, pedagogical experiment, analysis of competitive activity, methods of mathematical statistics.
 As a result of the analytical and research work, the effectiveness of the training methodology and improvement of counterattacking technical and tactical actions of taekwondo athletes at the stage of specialized basic training was established.
 The most effective schemes for complicating training and improving counter-attacking technical actions, which are performed in response to the opponent's attacking technical actions from different distances and at different speeds, have been determined.
 Prospects for further research in the chosen direction of scientific research consist in the development of a program for improving the counterattacking actions of taekwondo athletes, taking into account the individual style of conducting a competitive match.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORMS OF MOTIVATION AND MENTAL SKILLS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Motivation and mental skills have an important place in learning and performance. The objective of this work is to study the relationship between different forms of motivation and mental skills in physical education and sport.202 high school students including 100 boys (mean age = 17.2 1.2 years) and 102 girls (mean age = 16.4 1.3 years) participated in this study. In order to assess mental skills, we used the Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool-3 test; and to assess different forms of motivation, we used the Scale of Motivation in Sports-28.The principal component analysis identified three components that represent 53% of total inertia. We named these components: intrinsic commitment, cognitive-emotional control and extrinsic commitment. At the end of this study, there is a strong relationship between different forms of motivation and mental skills in physical education and sport.There is a strong relationship between mental skills and different forms of motivation. These are strongly linked neuropsychological processes. More precisely, developing students' mental skills is developing their motivation. Therefore, the pedagogical interventions of teachers of physical and sports education must encourage the development of these neuropsychological skills, through a more suitable content that affects both the motor, cognitive and emotional aspects of the student. In perspective, there is a need to develop a test that assesses both mental skills and forms of motivation, the components of which will be intrinsic commitment, cognitive-emotional control and extrinsic commitment.

Influence of Strength Training Variables on Neuromuscular and Morphological Adaptations in Prepubertal Children: A Systematic Review

Strength training in prepubertal children is one of the topics that has aroused the most interest and controversy among training professionals in recent years. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the available scientific evidence on the influence of strength training variables on morphological and/or neuromuscular adaptations in healthy prepubertal populations with no previous experience in this type of training according to the descriptive sample characteristics. According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis, 22 studies were selected after a systematic search and selection process using four electronic databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and SPORT Discus. Furthermore, the internal validity of the studies included was assessed using the modified PEDro scale. The sample consisted of 604 prepubertal children (age, 10.02 ± 0.75 years), of whom 473 were boys and 131 were girls, with 104 strength training programs recorded. Strength training resulted in a significant increase in jumping (n = 29) and sprinting (n = 13) abilities. Moreover, muscle strength was increased in 100% of the cases. Morphologically, strength training resulted in a decrease in body fat percentage (n = 19) and an increase in lean body mass (n = 17). With regard to gender, increases in general sport skills and basic physical abilities were significant in males but not in females. Thus, the results are more heterogeneous in girls due to the small number of studies carried out. Therefore, this research provides practical applications for coaches to design and implement more effective training programs to maximize adaptations, enhance physical performance, and reduce injury risk.