Spin-coating Method Research Articles

Bioresorbable composites based on magnesium and hydroxyapatite for use in bone tissue engineering: focus on controlling and minimizing corrosion activity

A biodegradable matrix with a significant content of bioactive components can be applied for bone tissue replacement, including load-bearing applications in orthopedic surgery. The study outlines the optimized procedure for the production of bioresorbable magnesium-hydroxyapatite (Mg-HA) composites and their corrosion resistance properties. Composites were meticulously crafted by combining pure magnesium with microwave-synthesized hydroxyapatite nanopowder. Sintering occurred via spark plasma sintering technology (SPS). To align the degradation time of the resulting composites with bone remodeling, the corrosion resistance of SPS materials was enhanced through the application of plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) and polycaprolactone (PCL) spin-coating methods. The protective properties, morphology dynamics, and composition due to surface treatment and corrosion propagation were investigated using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), Potentiodynamic Polarization (PDP), hydrogen evolution tests, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) as well as X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Analytics of the physicochemical properties data of the formed coatings indicate a significant improvement in protective characteristics and deceleration of the corrosive degradation of the samples. The application of polycaprolactone to the PEO coating leads to a decrease in the corrosion current compared to uncoated magnesium composites by more than three orders of magnitude: from 1 10-5 to 2 10-9 A cm-2. During long-term exposure of samples to 0.9 % NaCl solution, it was found that coating reduced the rate of corrosion degradation of samples from 1.5 to 80 times compared to an unprotected Mg-HA composite and sintered magnesium. Mg-HA composites treated with PEO exhibit potential application as bioactive and biodegradable materials for orthopedic implants and fixation devices.

Transforming Agro-Industrial Waste into Bioplastic Coating Films.

Addressing the environmental impact of agro-industrial waste, this study explores the transformation of banana, potato, and orange peels into bioplastics suitable for thin coating films. We prepared six extracts at 100 g/L, encompassing individual (banana peel, BP; orange peel, OP; and potato peel, PP) and combined [BP/OP, BP/PP, and BP/OP/PP] formulations, with yeast mold (YM) medium serving as the control. Utilizing the spin-coating method, we applied 1 mL of each sample at 1000 rpm for 1 min to create the films. Notably, the OP extract demonstrated a twofold increase in bioplastic yield (860.33 mg/L) compared to the yields of BP (391.43 mg/L), PP (357.67 mg/L), BP/OP (469.40 mg/L), BP/PP (382.50 mg/L), BP/OP/PP (272.67 mg/L), and YM (416.33 mg/L) extracts. Atomic force microscopy analysis of the film surfaces revealed a roughness under 8 nm, with the OP extract recording the highest at 7.0275 nm, whereas the BP/OP mixture exhibited the lowest roughness at 0.2067 nm and also formed the thinnest film at 6.5 nm. With R2 trend values exceeding 0.9950, the films exhibited water vapor permeability values ranging from 3.05 × 10-3 to 4.44 × 10-3, with the OP film being the least permeable and the BP/PP films the most permeable. The OP film demonstrated the lowest solubility in both water and ethanol with values of 64.71 and 1.05%, respectively. The solubilities of all films were above 60% in water and below 4% in ethanol. Furthermore, the films exhibited antimicrobial efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Our findings confirm the potential of utilizing banana, orange, and potato peels as viable substrates for eco-friendly bioplastics in thin-film applications.

Preparation of V2O5-Ink for the Fabrication of V2O5 Thin Films by the Spin Coating Method.

This article reports the preparation of V2O5 ink via a novel chemical route. The prepared V2O5 ink has been spin coated for the synthesis of V2O5 thin films on glass substrates. The synthesized V2O5 thin films were annealed at 300-400 °C in air and characterized by different techniques. The X-ray diffraction data reveal the phase pure V2O5 compound with polycrystalline nature. The scanning electron microscopy micrographs unravel that the V2O5 thin films are smooth with few nanoflakes presented on the surfaces. An optical study reveals that transmittance and bandgap of the V2O5 thin films decrease with annealing temperature. The bandgap of the films varies in the range of 2.8-2.9 eV. These findings have opened a new avenue for the preparation of metal oxide ink. The prepared V2O5 ink is promising for the manufacture of low-cost V2O5-based photoelectrochemical cells.

High ferroelectric polarization and bandgap modulation in Sol-gel-Synthesis BiFe1–2xAxCoxO3 (A=Mn2+, Ti4+) polycrystalline films

Co-doping of Fe sites in BiFeO3 polycrystalline films effectively suppresses leakage current. Polycrystalline BiFe1–2xMnxCoxO3 and BiFe1–2xTixCoxO3 (x = 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03) films were prepared using the sol-gel spin-coating method. A systematic investigation was conducted to determine the impact of (Mn2+/Ti4+, Co2+) co-doping on the structural, leakage current, ferroelectric, dielectric, and optical properties of BiFeO3 films. Results reveal that BiFe1–2xAxCoxO3 (A=Mn2+, Ti4+) films maintain a stable tripartite structure, with (Mn2+/Ti4+, Co2+) co-doping inducing lattice distortion. The leakage current density of BiFe0.98Mn0.01Co0.01O3 (3.45×10−7 A/cm2) and BiFe0.96Ti0.02Co0.02O3 (2.05×10−6 A/cm2) is reduced by 2–3 orders of magnitude relative to pure BiFeO3. Additionally, these films exhibit high remanent polarization values of 188.4 μC/cm2 and 186.8 μC/cm2, respectively. Optical band gaps decrease with (Mn, Co) co-doping and increase with (Ti, Co) co-doping. The magnetic properties are enhanced with increased (Mn, Co) doping but are reduced as (Ti, Co) doping increases. This study provides enhanced understanding of Fe-site co-doping's role in reducing leakage current and improving ferroelectricity in BiFeO3 films, offering valuable insights for photovoltaic applications involving BiFeO3 thin films.

TiO2-Nanoparticle-Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy for Prevention of Posterior Capsular Opacification and Ferroptosis Exploration of Its Mechanism.

To explore the application and potential ferroptosis mechanisms of sonodynamic therapy (SDT) using titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs) as sonosensitizers for the prevention of posterior capsule opacification (PCO). We fabricated TiO2-NP-coated intraocular lenses (TiO2-IOLs) using the spin-coating method, followed by ultrasound activation of the photosensitizer TiO2. In vitro experiments were performed with human lens epithelial cells (HLECs) to explore the appropriate concentration of TiO2 and ultrasonic parameters. Investigations included reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, glutathione (GSH) depletion, glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) western blot analysis, lipid peroxidation assays, and transcriptomics analysis. Finally, TiO2-IOLs were implanted in rabbit eyes to explore the in vivo performance of SDT. Through both in vitro and in vivo experiments, the study determined that the ultrasound parameters of 5-minute duration, 1-MHz frequency, 50% duty cycle, and 1.2-W/cm2 intensity were reliable and valid for killing HLECs without damaging other ocular structures. In vitro experiments demonstrated that SDT generated excess ROS, which disrupted the mitochondrial membrane potential and significantly reduced the GSH content. Additionally, the downregulation of GPX4, accumulation of lipid peroxides, and alteration of mitochondrial morphology were observed, suggesting that ferroptosis may be the underlying mechanism. The RNA-sequencing analysis results also showed an increase in the expression of multiple pro-ferroptosis genes and the ferroptosis marker gene PTGS2. Animal experiments preliminarily demonstrated the safety and effectiveness of SDT in treating PCO in vivo. TiO2-IOLs combined with SDT effectively prevented PCO by generating ROS and intracellular ferroptosis.

Electrical transport properties of topographically demorphed films of La1-xBaxMnO3 grown on (00l)-oriented LaAlO3 substrate via spin-coating method

Herein, the crystal structure, valence, and electrical transport properties of La1-xBaxMnO3 films were examined by preparing La1-xBaxMnO3 films with varying Ba content (x = 0.22, 0.24, 0.26, 0.28) on LaAlO3 substrates using the sol-gel spin coating technique. The La1-xBaxMnO3 films prepared in the study exhibit topographically demorphed and non-dense characteristics in the microstructure, which is mainly caused by the Volmer-Weber growth mode of the films and the volatilization of organic matter during the sol-gel sintering process for films preparation. The increase of Ba doping leads to MnO6 deformation, decrease in grain boundary scattering, increase in Mn4+ ion content, and enhancement of both the double exchange mechanism and the Jahn-Teller effect. The four-probe results showed that the peak resistivity of the films decreased significantly with the increase in Ba2+ doping, and the metal-insulator transition temperature (Tp) shifted to higher temperatures. Peak temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR) corresponding temperature (Tk) increased from 283.05 K (x = 0.22) to 309.31 K (x = 0.28), which was consistent with the trend of Tp; the peak value of TCR decreased with the increase of Ba doping. When x = 0.24, the Tk of the La1-xBaxMnO3 films reach room temperature (294.25 K) with TCR = 9.01 % K−1. In conclusion, the electrical properties of La1-xBaxMnO3 can be optimized by varying the amount of Ba doping to obtain La1-xBaxMnO3 films with room-temperature Tk and higher TCR values, providing reasonable data support and theoretical explanation for the Ba doping mechanism.

Lead-Free CsBi3I10 Thin-Film flexible photodetectors with enhanced performance for broad spectral response

By employing a hot spin-coating method, CsBi3I10 thin-film photodetector was fabricated onto flexible PET substrate. The resulting nontoxic photodetector demonstrated exceptional optoelectronic performance, featuring an Ilight/Idark ratio of 1.8 × 103, a responsivity of 18.3 mA/W and a detectivity of 2.95 × 108Jones. It also showed a broad spectral response and maintained consistent performance after 506 light switching cycles and 1000 bending cycles. The dynamic imaging capability of the device was further validated, illustrating its potential for diverse applications. This work pioneers the application of CsBi3I10 perovskite thin-film in flexible photodetectors, offering a green, stable and high-performance solution for next-generation optoelectronic devices.

Ultrahigh Electrical Conductivity in p-Type CsPbI2Br Perovskite Thin Films by Modulation Doping.

The widespread adoption of halide perovskites for application in thermoelectric devices, DC power generators, and lasers is hindered by their low charge carrier concentration. In particular, increasing their charge carrier concentration is considered the main challenge to serve as a promising room-temperature thermoelectric material. Efforts have been devoted to enhancing the charge carrier concentration by doping and composition engineering. However, the coupling between charge carrier concentration and mobility, along with the poor stability of these materials, impedes their development for thermoelectric applications. Herein, we demonstrate the successful increase in the charge carrier concentration of CsPbI2Br by forming a heterojunction structure with Cu2S via a facile spin-coating method. The excellent band alignment between two materials combined with a charge-transfer mechanism realizes the modulation doping, resulting in 8 orders of magnitude increase in carrier concentration from 1012 to 1020 cm-3 without detrimental effect on the carrier mobility of CsPbI2Br. The thermoelectric power factor of the heterostructured CsPbI2Br reached 6.6 μW/m·K2, which is 330 times higher than that of pristine CsPbI2Br. Furthermore, these films showed higher humidity stability than the control films. This study offers a promising avenue for increasing the charge carrier concentration of halide perovskites, thereby enhancing their potential for various applications.

Self-powered Schottky barrier photodetectors based on P3HT:PC61BM bulk heterojunction films

By employing the classic system poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl): [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (P3HT:PC61BM), organic bulk heterojunction films were applied on an indium tin oxide substrate using a one-step spin-coating method, without requiring any complex manufacturing processes, to obtain self-powered photodetectors (PDs) with a simple preparation process. The fullerene material was introduced to create a bulk heterojunction film with proper phase separation and greatly enrich the donor/acceptor dissociation interface, thus improving the high exciton binding energy and short exciton diffusion distance. The built-in electric field formed by the Schottky junction at the interface between the active layer and electrode can enhance the separation of excitons and the transport of charge carriers, realizing optical detection without external energy sources. Moreover, femtosecond transient absorption was employed to investigate the exciton dynamics in organic films and analyze the working mechanism of self-powered detection performance. The long-lived behavior of carriers and the formation of charge transfer states were further verified, which contributed to the enhanced performance of the device. As a result, the self-powered PD-based Schottky bulk heterojunction presents a high light on/off ratio of over 104 (0 V) and fast response speed with rise and decay times of 33 and 36 µs, respectively, under a 532 nm light illumination. These results provide theoretical and experimental verification of this technique for the development of self-powered PDs in the field of organic materials.

Enhanced carrier transfer performance on blade-coating PbS quantum dot solar cells by coordinated operation of iodine ligands

The significant breakthrough in the photovoltaic conversion efficiency of lead sulfide (PbS) quantum dot solar cells has primarily been achieved on small substrates using the spin-coating method. However, the blade-coating technique offers a scalable alternative for large-scale fabrication of absorption film, addressing the limitations of spin-coating for commercial applications. Given the inherent challenges of the blade-coating method, which often produces low-quality and defective films. Thus, an iodide ligand passivation strategy to realize the formation of high-quality films with reduced trap states was proposed. Typically, the iodide ligand is incorporated into the precursor solution with the aim of fine-tuning the nanoparticle’s functionality, facilitating the formation of systematically aligned and densely coupled film configurations during the blade coating procedure. The functional mechanisms of the aligned and compact-coupled configurations, as well as the effect of iodide introduction on defect mitigation, have been systematically investigated. The results reveal that iodide ligand introduction modulates the interparticle electrostatic potential and inter-dot space, facilitating the formation of a uniform structure with enhanced energy level alignment and reduced trap states. The highly aligned and compact structure improves interfacial integration with the ZnO electron transport layer, enabling efficient photon-electron extraction and transfer. As a result, PbS quantum dot solar cells fabricated using the blade coating technique have achieved an optimized efficiency of 4.68 %, offering significant potential for the development and production of directly-synthesized ink for quantum dot solar cells.

Influence of RE2O3 (Dy2O3, Yb2O3, and Lu2O3) buffer layers on the structural and ferroelectric characteristics of BiFeO3 thin films

This study investigates the impact of RE2O3 (Dy2O3, Yb2O3, and Lu2O3) buffer layers on the structural and ferroelectric properties of BiFeO3 thin films grown using a spin-coating method. BiFeO3 thin films with various RE2O3 buffer layers were analyzed using x-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, secondary ion mass spectrometry, and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to determine their crystalline structures, surface topographies, depth profiles, and chemical compositions, respectively. The RE2O3-buffered BiFeO3 film showed better electrical properties compared to the control BiFeO3 film. The buffer layer composed of Yb2O3 showed the lowest leakage current of 6.82 × 10−6 A cm−2, highest remnant polarization of 44.1 μC cm−2, and smallest coercive field of 189 kV cm−1 because of the incorporation of Yb3+ ions into the BiFeO3 film, high degree of (110) preferred orientation, high Fe3+ content, low surface roughness, reduction of Fe3+ valence fluctuation to Fe2+ ions, and decrease in oxygen vacancies. Such BiFeO3 thin films with various RE2O3 buffer layers using spin-coating method pave a pathway toward practical applications of spintronic, sensor and memory.

Optoelectronic properties study of arylamine-functionalized benzothiophenes and benzothiophene S,S-Dioxides. Application in solution-processed organic light-emitting diodes

Conjugated organic molecules based on core benzothiophene (BT) and benzothiophene S,S-dioxide (BTO), substituted with triphenylamines at positions 3,5,6 and 2,4,7, were designed via Suzuki couplings. Optoelectronic properties were studied, and theoretical calculations were carried out to understand the structured absorbance spectra of the various compounds. All compounds exhibited bright emission within the visible region, ranging from blue for BT to yellow-orange for BTO. Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) devices were fabricated through an air-processed spin-coating method where all layers, except the top cathode, were solution-processed. Device luminance exceeded 1000 cd/m2 using 2,4,7-triphenylaminebenzothiophene S,S-dioxide, which in turn was successfully translated to a large-area module slot-die coated on a plastic substrate.

Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting Using NiMoO4/BiVO4/Sn-Doped WO3 Double Heterojunction Photoanodes.

Efficient photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting systems in photoelectrodes are primarily challenged by electron-hole pair recombination. Constructing a heterostructure is an effective strategy to overcome this issue and to enhance PEC efficiency. In this study, we integrated NiMoO4, known for its proper electrocatalytic conductivity, into a BiVO4/Sn-doped WO3 heterojunction using solution-based hydrothermal and spin-coating methods, forming an innovative double heterojunction concept. The resulting NiMoO4/BiVO4/Sn:WO3 triple-layer heterojunction photoanode exhibits a photocurrent density of 2.06 mA cm-2 in a potassium borate buffer (KBi) electrolyte at 1.23 V vs RHE, outperforming the bilayer BiVO4/Sn:WO3 heterojunction (1.45 mA cm-2) and Sn:WO3 photoanodes (0.55 mA cm-2) by approximately 1.4 and 3.7 times, respectively. Remarkably, the NiMoO4/BiVO4/Sn:WO3 double heterojunction photoanode exhibits notable stability, showing only an approximate 30% reduction in initial photocurrent density after 10 h of measurement in the KBi electrolyte without a hole scavenger. This stability is attributed to the excellent corrosion resistance of the thin NiMoO4 layer, effectively protecting the bilayer BiVO4/Sn:WO3 heterojunction photoanode from photocorrosion. Our findings show how this novel double heterojunction, established through simple and cost-effective solution-based methods, offers a promising approach to enhancing PEC water splitting applications.

Target Recognition-Triggered Interfacial Electron Transfer Model: Toward Signal-On Photoelectrochemical Aptasensing for Efficient Detection of Staphylococcus aureus Using Ti3C2Tx-Au NBPs/ZnO NR Composites.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the most common foodborne pathogens worldwide, which poses a great threat to public health. It is of utmost importance to develop rapid, simple, and sensitive methods for the determination of S. aureus. A signal-on photoelectrochemical (PEC) aptasensor is constructed herein based on titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx)-Au nanobipyramids (NBPs)/ZnO nanoarrays (NRs). The reliability and capability of the PEC aptasensor make it suitable for the sensitive and selective determination of S. aureus. First, the electrostatically self-assembled Ti3C2Tx-Au NBP nanomaterial was coated on the ZnO NR surface by a spin-coating method. On the one hand, Ti3C2Tx-Au NBPs can broaden the spectral absorption of ZnO NRs, resulting in Ti3C2Tx-Au NBPs/ZnO NR composites that exhibit a wide range of absorption from the ultraviolet to the infrared region. On the other hand, Ti3C2Tx can reduce the agglomeration of nanoparticles, while Au NBPs can effectively fix the aptamer through the Au-S bond. Specifically, the experimental results show that when S. aureus is present, the Au NBPs-aptamer-S. aureus complex is shed from the electrode surface, altering the interfacial electron transfer model and reducing the steric hindrance. Consequently, an amplified photocurrent signal for the quantitative determination of S. aureus is obtained. Under optimal experimental conditions, a linear correlation is observed between the current response of the aptasensor and the logarithm of the S. aureus concentration (ranging from 1.0 to 1.0 × 106 CFU/mL), with an impressive detection limit as low as 0.5 CFU/mL. Furthermore, the aptasensor has been successfully employed for the detection of S. aureus in milk, with the recovery of 93.0%-99.0%. Hence, this research offers a novel approach for the detection of foodborne pathogens and other noxious substances.

Data encryption/decryption and medical image reconstruction based on a sustainable biomemristor designed logic gate circuit

Memristors are considered one of the most promising new-generation memory technologies due to their high integration density, fast read/write speeds, and ultra-low power consumption. Natural biomaterials have attracted interest in integrated circuits and electronics because of their environmental friendliness, sustainability, low cost, and excellent biocompatibility. In this study, a sustainable biomemristor with Ag/mugwort:PVDF/ITO structure was prepared using spin-coating and magnetron sputtering methods, which exhibited excellent durability, significant resistance switching (RS) behavior and unidirectional conduction properties when three metals were used as top electrode. By studying the conductivity mechanism of the device, a charge conduction model was established by the combination of F-N tunneling, redox, and complexation reaction. Finally, the novel logic gate circuits were constructed using the as-prepared memristor, and further memristor based encryption circuit using 3-8 decoder was innovatively designed, which can realize uniform rule encryption and decryption of medical information for data and medical images. Therefore, this work realizes the integration of memristor with traditional electronic technology and expands the applications of sustainable biomemristors in digital circuits, data encryption, and medical image security.

Copper-Surface-Mediated Synthesis of sp2 Carbon-Conjugated Covalent Organic Framework Photocathodes for Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Evolution.

Sp2-carbon (sp2-c) covalent organic frameworks (COFs), featuring distinctive π-conjugated network structures, facilitate the migration of photo-generated carriers, rendering them exceptionally appealing for applications in photoelectrochemical water splitting. However, owing to the powdery nature of COFs, leaving anchor the sp2-c COFs powder tightly onto a conductive substrate challenging. Here, we propose a method for preparing photoactive substance-conductive substrate integrated photocathodes through copper surface-mediated knoevenagel polycondensation (Cu-SMKP), this approach results in a uniform and stable sp2-c COF film, directly grown on commercial copper foam (COFTh-Cu). The COFTh-Cu demonstrates a high H2-evolution photocurrent density of 56 μA cm-2 at 0.3 V vs. RHE, sustaining stability for 12 h. The as-prepared COFTh-Cu represents a 4.5-fold increase in current density compared to traditional spin-coating methods and outperforms most COF photocathodes without cocatalysts. This innovative copper surface-mediated approach for preparing photocathodes opens up a crucial pathway towards the realization of highly active COF photocathodes.

High Responsivity of Sol-gel TiO2NPs/Si Photodetectors Deposited by Spin Coating Method

High Responsivity of Sol-gel TiO2NPs/Si Photodetectors Deposited by Spin Coating Method

Large-Scale Formation of a Close-Packed Monolayer of Spheres Using Different Colloidal Lithography Techniques.

The possibility of using colloidal lithography at the industrial level depends on the ability to form defect-free coatings over large areas. The spin-coating method has not yet shown acceptable results, but a more detailed studying of the regularities of this process may improve the quality of masks. The Langmuir-Blodgett method is expected to be the most preferable for forming high-quality large-scale monolayers. Real-time controlling the surface pressure of the monolayer can allow to obtain close-packed arrays with long-range order. In this work, to develop the spin-coating technology, the influence of technological parameters (spin-coating speed and time, concentrations of components in suspension) on the substrate coverage area with a monolayer of polystyrene spheres (1.25 μm) was studied. An original automated Langmuir-Blodgett system was developed to study the influence of the monolayer surface pressure on its quality using polystyrene spheres (1.25, 1.8, 2.1 μm). The developed spin-coating technology resulted in a record coverage area (90%) of Si substrate (76 mm) and a defect-free hexagonally ordered domain area of 500 μm2. As a result of the developed Langmuir-Blodgett technique, a close-packed monolayer coating was obtained over the entire substrate area (coverage area 99.5%, defect-free domain area 3000 μm2) without the use of any surfactants.

Influence of substrate edge chamfer geometric features on the edge effect of spin-coating film

Abstract The spin-coating method is a widely employed technique for thin film fabrication. However, edge effects can adversely affect the quality and utility of the films produced. This study investigates the influence of chamfered edges on the substrate during the spin-coating process on edge effects. Both experimental and simulation results indicate that smaller chamfer angles contribute to reducing the width of edge effects. Conversely, the width of the chamfer has a relatively minor impact on the extent of edge effects.

Synthesis of TiO2 Thin Film with Cobalt Doping Using Sol-Gel Spin-Coating Technique as a Solar Cell Material

Research has been done on thin films by mixing TiO2 with cobalt doping and adding HCI as a solar cell material. The aim of this research is to produce a thin layer that is good for use in solar cells. This research has several stages, namely: 1) weighing cobalt and titanium; 2) glass substrate preparation; 3) making a sol-gel solution; 4) thin layer deposition; and 5) heating the sample. From these several stages, the result was that a pure TiO2 solution without doping obtained a thick white solution, whereas the more doping used, the fainter the color of the solution obtained. The thin-layer synthesis process uses a spin-coating method assisted by a modified centrifuge to evenly distribute the sol-gel solution on the surface of the glass substrate