Specificity Of Serological Reactions Research Articles

From antibody specificity to T cell recognition.

Landsteiner's definition of human blood groups and the genetic rules that govern blood transfusion represents a milestone in human genetics and a historic event in public health. His research into the specificity of serological reactions, although less well known, has had a critical influence on the development of contemporary views on immune recognition, clonal selection, and immunological self-tolerance.

Karl Otto Landsteiner (1868-1943). Physician-biochemist-immunologist.

Karl Landsteiner applied the sciences of biochemistry, pathology, microbiology, and immunology in medical research to great success during the first half of the 20th century. Although he is principally known for elucidating the major blood group antigens A and B and their isoantibodies for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Landsteiner made many other important medical discoveries. In that respect, he ascertained that paralytic poliomyelitis was due to a virus, the pancreas was damaged in cystic fibrosis, simple chemicals called haptens were able to combine with antibodies, and the Rh antigen that was later found to be the principal cause of hemolytic anemia of the newborn was found in most humans. Moreover, Landsteiner's book "The Specificity of Serological Reactions" was a precursor to the molecular revolution in immunology that occurred after Second World War. Finally, he was one of the leaders of the American Association of Immunology and of the Journal of Immunology.

The specificity of immunological reactions

Specificity is an imprecise but widely used concept in immunology. Usually specificity is described in practical terms, such as the ability of one antibody to bind one and not another member of a family of chemically related substances. Karl Landsteiner's pioneering work ‘ The Specificity of Serological Reactions’ set the standard in experimental immunology over 50 years ago. Today, a more general yet precise concept of specificity is needed to describe the behavior of all antigen-specific recognitive components of the immune system. The necessary degree of specificity for antigen recognition in the immune response is determined by evolutionary selection pressures that result in the ridding of pathogens. Potent bio-destructive effector mechanisms are under the direction of specificity-determining elements (e.g. antibodies), and these must accurately distinguish Self ( S) components (not to be destroyed) from Nonself ( NS) components (to be destroyed). Binding reactions between antigen and antibody are necessary, though not sufficient, for the execution of the protective bio-destructive effector reactions, which, for example, require more than one antibody molecule to be bound before that antigen can be ridded. While the total number of different specificities will determine the precision with which S and NS are distinguished, a concept of relative specificity can be formulated in terms of a Specificity Index (SI), or the ratio of anti- S to anti- NS in the repertoire. A further question concerns whether specificity applies per receptor, or per paratope, when the number of paratopes per receptor is greater than one. The analyses and concepts developed here are based on immunoglobulin structure and function and extrapolated to include the less well studied T cell receptor system.

Structural Studies of Immunoglobulins

In 1946, when I was starting work as research student under the supervision of Dr F. Sanger, the second edition of Karl Lansteiner's book” The Specificity of Serological Reactions’[I] reached England. In it was summarized the considerable body of information available on the range of antibody specificity and much of it was Landsteiner's own work or by others using his basic technique of preparing antibodies against haptenes and testing their ability to inhibit the precipitation of the antisera and t he conjugated protein. Also described in this book was the work in Uppsala of Tiselius and Pederson in collaboration with Heidelberger and Kabat in which they showed that all rabbit antibodies were in the y globulin fraction of serum proteins and that they had a molecular weight of 150.000. This combination of an apparently infinite range of antibody‐combining specificity associated with what appeared to be a nearly homogeneous group of proteins astonished me and indeed still does.

Ontogeny of the clonal selection theory of antibody formation. Reflections on Darwin and Ehrlich.

This is an idiosyncratically personal account of the origins, about 30 years ago, of the clonal selection theory, a no longer controversial integrating theme of immunological research. As an interested participant, the perspectives I can offer are those within my own ken, inevitably an egocentric one. This will unfortunately understate the independent roles played by a host of others, including several in these proceedings. Other historical accounts’*2 may give a more objective view. However, some parts of my story have not been told before. It will be of particular interest to students of the philosophy and socioiogy of science to analyze the processes of resistance and acceptance of clonal selection theory after 1957, until its general acceptance around 1967.3m5 My personal mise-en-scene begins in 1955. I had been at the University of Wisconsin since 1947, having gone there directly from my work in Ed Tatum’s lab at Yale and Francis Ryan’s at Columbia. If I needed any reinforcement about the interest antigens and antibodies would have for general biological theory, I would have received this amply from M. R. Irwin. Ray Owen had left Wisconsin for Caltech just before I arrived, but his intellectual trace was everywhere. However, my own work was strictly confined to the genetics of Escherichia coli and of salmonella. The diversity of serotypes in salmonella had been one of the conceptual clues to genetic recombination in bacteria, and I had at least one experimental contact with immunology, namely, serology of tlagellar and somatic antigens.6 The principal antecedental threads of clonal selection, at least for this microbiologist, were: (1) physicochemical concepts of serological specificity, spanning from Paul Ehrlich to Karl Landsteiner and Linus Pauling; (2) the revalidation of Darwinian models (namely, prior spontaneous mutation and natural selection) in their application to adaptation in microorganisms, such as the development of specific resistance to antibiotics; (3) an emerging understanding of gene expression in protein synthesis, particularly in substrate-induced enzyme synthesis in bacteria; and (4) a developing conception of a genetics of somatic cells by analogy with the genetics of bacteria (Mendelian models). Karl Landsteiner’s “The Specificity of Serological Reactions” focused attention on antigen-antibody reaction as a prototype of biological specificity. Pauling’s chapter in the 1945 edition’ showed how “specificity can arise in the interaction of large molecules as a result of the spatial configuration of the molecules.” The seminal value of this stereochemical axiom was unfortunately not matched by well-founded speculations on the mechanism of antibody synthesis. In the early 1950s there was notably little serious discussion of the mechanism of antibody formation. The most prevalent

Purification of cytoplasmic antigens from the mycelial phase of Candida albicans: possible advantages of its use in Candida serology.

The serology of candidiasis is complicated by the use of poorly defined antigens. Total extracts of the yeast phase have been commonly used as "cytoplasmic' antigen, without regard to the significant amounts of carbohydrate that may contaminate such preparations. This is particularly true in the case of commercially available antigens that have been used as cytoplasmic antigens but actually are richer in carbohydrate than in protein. Affinity chromatography in concanavalin A - Sepharose provides a simple procedure to separate carbohydrates, mainly mannan, from protein antigens in whole Candida extracts. By using mannan-poor antigens, the specificity of serological reactions can be increased considerably, since both the positive reactions seen in a-symptomatic donors and the cross-reactions seen in patients infected with other fungi are due to anti-mannan antibodies. In contrast, both anti-mannan and anti-cytoplasmic antigen antibodies can be detected in patients suspected of systemic candidiasis. On the other hand, absolute specificity may never be achieved for systemic candidiasis. We have found antibodies against cytoplasmic antigen in a patient allergic to C. albicans, in whom the microorganism was isolated from fecal material. It appears that, under favorable conditions, mucosal sensitization may also trigger as systemic reaction directed against both mannan and cytoplasmic antigens.

Structural studies of immunoglobulins.

In 1946, when I was starting work as research student under the supervision of Dr F. Sanger, the second edition of Karl Lansteiner's book” The Specificity of Serological Reactions’[I] reached England. In it was summarized the considerable body of information available on the range of antibody specificity and much of it was Landsteiner's own work or by others using his basic technique of preparing antibodies against haptenes and testing their ability to inhibit the precipitation of the antisera and t he conjugated protein. Also described in this book was the work in Uppsala of Tiselius and Pederson in collaboration with Heidelberger and Kabat in which they showed that all rabbit antibodies were in the y globulin fraction of serum proteins and that they had a molecular weight of 150.000. This combination of an apparently infinite range of antibody-combining specificity associated with what appeared to be a nearly homogeneous group of proteins astonished me and indeed still does.

Antibodies to enzymes--a tool in the study of antigenic specificity determinants.

The study of antigenic specificity determinants has long been a subject of interest. Since the early studies of Landsteiner (1945) on the specificity of serological reactions and through numerous recent investigations with synthetic antigens (Sela, 1966) as well as protein conjugates (Boyd, 1962; Pressman and Grossberg, 1968), efforts have been aimed at the elucidation of the Structural features which are characteristic of the sites against which the antibodies are formed. Antibodies can be produced against the majority of enzymes can be employed, for example, in the search for enzymes of biological pathways which disappeared in the course of evolution, or to detect the extent of similarity between enzymes that persisted through the ages. In cases where the primary sequence of the enzymes is known, the elucidation of the immunological behaviour is feasible in precise molecular terms and should provide a sensitive probe of the surface conformation, in addition to the contribution in identifying antigenic determinants. The extensive studies on cytochrome c (e.g. Margoliash et al., 1967) have indeed demonstrated the power of this analytical approach. They demonstrated that antisera prepared against any one of several cytochromes c (the complete amino acid sequence of which is known) cross-react to a varying extent with the proteins from over 25 other species.

Specificity of serological reactions: Landsteiner centennial. Opening remarks.

Specificity of serological reactions: Landsteiner centennial. Opening remarks.

Karl Landsteiner. Father of blood grouping and immunochemistry.

It was on June 25, 1943 that the world lost a great mind and a great medical scientist, when Dr. Karl Landsteiner succumbed to the effects of a heart attack that had overtaken him two days before while he was actively at work in his laboratory. He had just passed his seventy-fifth birthday of a lifetime devoted to fundamental research. Shortly before his death he had completed the second edition of his classic book, “The Specificity of Serological Reactions”, and he had also published almost 350 scientific papers describing the results of his pioneering investigations. This year is the centenary of the birth of Karl Landsteiner, and it seems fitting at this time to pay tribute to this genius and benefactor of mankind by reviewing some of his great discoveries.Of Dr. Landsteiner's discoveries, the one that has captivated the popular imagination the most is his discovery of the A-B-O blood groups, frequently called the Landsteiner blood groups in his honor. At the beginning of the present century, it was recognized that bloods from animals of different species could be distinguished from one another by their serological reactions. For this reason, the use of animal blood for transfusions to human beings was abandoned, but the frequent serious reactions that followed transfusions of blood from one human being to another still remained unexplained. Landsteiner then tested the blood of workers in his laboratory by mixing serum taken from one individual with the red cells of others. He found that instead of the weak or negative reactions that might have been expected, in some combinations strong agglutination of the red cells occurred, while in other combinations no effect was apparent.

The Specificity of Serological Reactions

The Specificity of Serological Reactions

The Specificity of Serological Reactions. By Karl Landsteiner, M.D. Pp. 330; illustrated. New York

The Specificity of Serological Reactions. By Karl Landsteiner, M.D. Pp. 330; illustrated. New York

The Specificity of Serological Reactions.

In 1936 the late Dr. Landsteiner published the first edition of his now classic monographic review of serologic reactions. The advances of the subsequent years made a revision desirable, and the text was completed at the time of Dr. Landsteiner's death; we are indebted to his son Ernest, also a physician, who undertook to see the revision carried through to the state of final publication. This volume contains an excellent chapter on molecular structure and intermolecular forces as they apply to immunologic reactions, contributed by Dr. Linus Pauling. The remainder of the book includes an introductory section defining immunologic concepts and terminology and chapters on the serologic properties of various types of proteins, nonprotein cell substances and artificial conjugated antigens derived from simple chemical compounds, on cell antigens, on the nature and specificity of antibodies and on antigen-antibody reactions. The enormous body of pertinent literature has been analyzed and built

PULMONARY INFILTRATION WITH EOSINOPHILIA (LÖFFLER'S SYNDROME) DUE TO SMOKE INHALATION: REPORT OF A CASE AND COMMENT ON PATHOGENESIS

Case Reports1 September 1958PULMONARY INFILTRATION WITH EOSINOPHILIA (LÖFFLER'S SYNDROME) DUE TO SMOKE INHALATION: REPORT OF A CASE AND COMMENT ON PATHOGENESISWILLIAM TSCHUMY JR., M.D.WILLIAM TSCHUMY JR., M.D.Search for more papers by this authorAuthor, Article, and Disclosure Informationhttps://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-49-3-665 SectionsAboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ExcerptRecent reviews1, 2, 3 have emphasized the numerous and varied agents which may be responsible for the clinical syndrome of pulmonary infiltration with peripheral blood eosinophilia. It has become increasingly apparent that, in spite of the multiple causes, the basic pathogenesis probably represents a hypersensitivity reaction to various antigens to which the pulmonary tissues may be exposed. A review of the literature has failed to reveal a previously reported case following inhalation of smoke fumes. The present case demonstrates certain features suggesting a delayed allergic inflammatory reaction in the pulmonary interstitial tissues.CASE REPORTA 40 year old white fireman...Bibliography1. CroftonLivingstoneOswaldRoberts JWJLNCAT: Pulmonary eosinophilia, Thorax 7: 1, 1952. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar2. Dias-RiveraRamos-MoralesCintron-Rivera RSFAA: Infiltrative eosinophilia, Arch. Int. Med. 94: 102, 1954. CrossrefGoogle Scholar3. ReederGoodrich WHBE: Pulmonary infiltration with eosinophilia (PIE syndrome), Ann. Int. Med. 36: 1217, 1952. LinkGoogle Scholar4. Engel D: Uber eine eigenartige, anaphylaktische Erkrankung der Lunge, Beitr. z. Klin. Tuberk. 87: 239, 1935. CrossrefGoogle Scholar5. Meyer HE: Zur Kenntnis fluchtiger mit Eosinophilie im Blut einhergehender Lungeninfiltrate, Med. Welt 11: 1808, 1937. Google Scholar6. WillettOppenheim FME: Pulmonary infiltrations with associated eosinophilia, Am. J. M. Sc. 212: 608, 1946. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar7. HerbutKinsey PAR: Transitory pulmonary infiltrations (Loeffler's syndrome) in rabbits, Arch. Path. 41: 489, 1946. Google Scholar8. Harkavy J: Vascular allergy. III, J. Allergy 14: 507, 1943. CrossrefGoogle Scholar9. BaggenstossBayleyLindberg AHECDO: Loeffler's syndrome: report of a case with pathologic examination of the lung, Proc. Staff Meet., Mayo Clin. 21: 457, 1946. MedlineGoogle Scholar10. ChurgStrauss JL: Allergic granulomatosis, allergic angiitis, and periarteritis nodosa, Am. J. Path. 27: 277, 1951. MedlineGoogle Scholar11. ZuelzerApt WWL: Disseminated visceral lesions associated with extreme eosinophilia, Am. J. Dis. Child. 78: 153, 1949. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar12. Bergstrand H: Morphological equivalents in polyarthritis rheumatica, periarteritis nodosa, transient eosinophilic infiltration of the lung and other allergic syndromes, J. Path. and Bact. 58: 399, 1946. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar13. Braunstein H: Periarteritis nodosa limited to the pulmonary circulation, Am. J. Path. 31: 837, 1955. MedlineGoogle Scholar14. Löffler W: Zur Differential-Diagnose der Lungeninfiltrierungen: Ueber fluchtige Succedan-Infiltrate (mit Eosinophilie), Beitr. z. Klin. Tuberk. 79: 368, 1932. CrossrefGoogle Scholar15. MoritzHenriquesMcLean AEFCR: The effects of inhaled heat on the air passages and lungs, Am. J. Path. 21: 311, 1945. MedlineGoogle Scholar16. HendersonHaggard YHE: Noxious gases and the principles of respiration influencing their action, 2nd Ed., 1943, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. Google Scholar17. Hunter D: The diseases of occupations, 1955, Little, Brown and Co., Boston. Google Scholar18. DelaneySchmidtStroebel LTHWCF: Silo-filler's disease, Proc. Staff Meet., Mayo Clin. 31: 189, 1956. MedlineGoogle Scholar19. LowrySchuman TLM: "Silo-filler's disease"—a syndrome caused by nitrogen dioxide, J. A. M. A. 162: 153, 1956. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar20. Grayson RR: Silage gas poisoning: nitrogen dioxide pneumonia, a new disease in agricultural workers, Ann. Int. Med. 45: 393, 1956. LinkGoogle Scholar21. Landsteiner K: The specificity of serological reactions, 1946, The Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Google Scholar22. KassFinland EHM: Role of adrenal steroids in infection and immunity, New England J. Med. 244: 464, 1951. CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar This content is PDF only. To continue reading please click on the PDF icon. Author, Article, and Disclosure InformationAffiliations: Dallas, Texas*Received for publication March 1, 1957.From the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas.Requests for reprints should be addressed to William O. Tschumy, Jr., M.D., 1616 Medical Arts Building, Dallas 1, Texas. PreviousarticleNextarticle Advertisement FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Metrics Cited byPulmonary Infiltrations with Eosinophilia as a Manifestation of CarcinomaThe Allergist and the Eosinophil 1 September 1958Volume 49, Issue 3Page: 665-672KeywordsAllergensAllergy and immunologyAntigensEosinophiliaFibrosisHypersensitivityInhalationPathogenesisProteinsVasculitis ePublished: 1 December 2008 Issue Published: 1 September 1958 PDF downloadLoading ...

ASPIRIN ALLERGY: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CHRONIC INTRACTABLE ASTHMA

Article1 May 1947ASPIRIN ALLERGY: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CHRONIC INTRACTABLE ASTHMASIDNEY FRIEDLAENDER, M.D., SAMUEL M. FEINBERG, M.D., F.A.C.P.SIDNEY FRIEDLAENDER, M.D.Search for more papers by this author, SAMUEL M. FEINBERG, M.D., F.A.C.P.Search for more papers by this authorAuthor, Article, and Disclosure Informationhttps://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-26-5-734 SectionsAboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ExcerptFor some time we have recognized a rather characteristic type of asthmatic patient whose symptoms are of unusual severity and chronicity, and who in addition presents a history of hypersensitivity to aspirin. Aspirin allergy has long been recognized, and a number of reports of severe reactions, some fatal, have appeared in the literature.1 The present discussion, however, does not deal particularly with these acute reactions to aspirin, but rather with the relationship of this drug hypersensitivity to the etiology of the chronic asthma which these individuals display.We have reviewed the findings in 45 private patients who fall into this...Bibliography1. LAMSONTHOMAS RWR a. : Some untoward effects of acetylsalicylic acid, Jr. Am. Med. Assoc., 1932, xcix, 107. b. DYSART B. R.: Death following ingestion of five grains of acetylsalicylic acid, Jr. Am. Med. Assoc., 1933, ci, 446. c. FRANCIS, NATHAN, GHENT O. T. BULLEN S. S.: Death from ten grains of aspirin, Jr. Allergy, 1935, vi, 504. CrossrefGoogle Scholar2. PRICKMANBUCKSTEIN LEHF: Hypersensitivity to acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), Jr. Am. Med. Assoc., 1937, cviii, 445. CrossrefGoogle Scholar3. KERNSCHENCK RH a. : Allergy a constant factor in the etiology of so-called mucous polyps, Jr. Allergy, 1933, iv, 485. b. KERN, R. SCHENCK H.: Importance of allergy in etiology and treatment of nasal mucous polyps, Jr. Am. Med. Assoc., 1934, ciii, 1293. CrossrefGoogle Scholar4. HANSEL FK: Clinical and histopathologic studies of the nose and sinuses in allergy, Jr. Allergy, 1929, i, 43. CrossrefGoogle Scholar5. GROVECOOKE CRRA: Etiology and nature of chronic hyperplastic sinusitis, Arch. Otolaryng., 1933, xviii, 622. CrossrefGoogle Scholar6. LEEUWEN WS: Pathognomonic significance of hypersensitivity to aspirin in asthmatics, Munchen. med. Wchnschr., 1928, lxxv, 1588. Google Scholar7. COOKE RA: Allergy in drug idiosyncrasy, Jr. Am. Med. Assoc., 1917, lxxiii, 759. Google Scholar8. COCAGROVE AFEF: Studies in hypersensitiveness. XIII. A study of atopic reagins, Jr. Immunol., 1925, x, 445. Google Scholar9. FEINBERGYOUMANS SMA: Unpublished experiments. Google Scholar10. LANDSTEINER K: The specificity of serological reactions, 1945, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. Google Scholar11. KERN RA: Asthma and allergic rhinitis due to sensitization to phthalic anhydride. Report of a case, Jr. Allergy, 1939, x, 164. CrossrefGoogle Scholar12. FEINBERGWATROUS SMRM: Atopy to simple chemical compounds—sulfonechloramides, Jr. Allergy, 1945, xvi, 209. CrossrefGoogle Scholar13. COOKE RA: Infective asthma: indication of its allergic nature, Am. Jr. Med. Sci., 1932, clxxxiii, 309. CrossrefGoogle Scholar This content is PDF only. To continue reading please click on the PDF icon. Author, Article, and Disclosure InformationAffiliations: *Received for publication July 25, 1946.From the Division of Allergy, Department of Medicine, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Ill.The experimental work mentioned in this paper was supported by a grant from the Upjohn Co., Kalamazoo. Michigan. PreviousarticleNextarticle Advertisement FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Metrics Cited byDeveloping and Emerging Clinical Asthma PhenotypesFlurbiprofen Axetil, Nasal Polyps, and Status Asthmaticus: An Unusual Case ReportOral and inhalation provocation tests for the diagnosis of aspirin-induced asthmaIncreased urinary excretion of the prostaglandin D2 metabolite 9α,11β-prostaglandin F2 after aspirin challenge supports mast cell activation in aspirin-induced airway obstructionLocalized periorbital edema induced by aspirinUrticaria und Intoleranz-Syndrom vom „Aspirin-Typ“ — pathologische Beziehungen, klinische Diagnostik und TherapieThe absence of detectable complement activation in aspirin-sensitive asthmatic patients during aspirin challengeAsthma bronchiale und Analgetika-IntoleranzAspirin and the SalicylatesAsthma Improved by Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory DrugsDANIEL KORDANSKY, M.D., N. FRANKLIN ADKINSON Jr., M.D., PHILIP S. NORMAN, M.D., RICHARD R. ROSENTHAL, M.D.Nasal polyps and bronchial asthmaAspirin idiosyncrasy in patients admitted for nasal polypectomyAspirin intolerance in a familyACETYLSALICYLIC ACID INTOLERANCEAllergische Reaktionen gegen PyrazolonderivateAspirin-induced asthma in childrenFamilial Occurrence of Asthma, Nasal Polyps, and Aspirin IntoleranceRICHARD F. LOCKEY, M.D., DONALD L. RUCKNAGEL, M.D., Ph.D., NEAL A. VANSELOW, M.D., F.A.C.P.Aspirin Intolerance and Asthma A Clinical and Immunological StudyBERNARD GIRALDO, M.D., MALCOLM N. BLUMENTHAL, M.D., WESLEY W. SPINK, M.D., M.A.C.P.Concerning the nature of intolerance to aspirinBronchial Asthma Induced by IndomethacinNEAL A. VANSELOW, M.D., JOSEF R. SMITH, M.D., F.A.C.P.ON THE RELATION BETWEEN DRUG ALLERGY AND ATOPYThe Stability of Acetylsalicylic Acid in SuspensionAspirin sensitivity—Experimental studies 1 May 1947Volume 26, Issue 5Page: 734-740KeywordsAllergy and immunologyAspirinAsthmaDrugsEtiologyFallsHypersensitivity ePublished: 1 December 2008 Issue Published: 1 May 1947 PDF downloadLoading ...

The Specificity of Serological Reactions

The Specificity of Serological Reactions

The Specificity of Serological Reactions.

The Specificity of Serological Reactions.

The Specificity of Serological Reactions.

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The Specificity of Serological Reactions

THE study of serological reactions has for years attracted many workers. There have been fierce controversies between the exponents of differing theories, and these controversies have stimulated both thought and work. During the last thirty years progress has been very rapid, and continues to be so, although relatively little work has been possible in Great Britain during the war years. The production of a revised edition of this extremely valuable book is therefore most welcome. The Specificity of Serological Reactions By Dr. Karl Landsteiner. Revised edition. With a Chapter on Molecular Structure and Intermolecular Forces, by Linus Pauling. Pp. xiv + 310. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1945.) 28s. net.

The Specificity of Serological Reactions

The Specificity of Serological Reactions