Spatial Perceptions Research Articles

Urban Spaces and psychic disease: A case series from Florence

People with schizophrenia or other psychoses present alterations of multi-sensory processing and impairments in cognitive functions. They seem to be more sensitive to external stimuli than the general population, which can negatively impact on their emotional state. The purpose of the study was to assess how elements of urban milieu combine with spatial experiences of people with these disorders, affecting their spatial perceptions and social interactions. The group of participants consisted of 10 patients aged between 20 and 40 years, with schizophrenia or other psychoses. We used qualitative methods to assess behaviours in different urban routes, including a period of participant observation and a series of semi-structured interviews. Pathways within the city were recorded using a Global Position System (GPS), in order to link perceptual and behavioural data to specific urban spaces. The data analysis has revealed positive interactions between most of participants and the city. Different places have been differently perceived in terms of stress and comfort. The wide squares and the art-rich sites of the city center, as well as public parks and gardens, have been connected with positive feelings and senses of pleasure. Conversely, the presence of a high number of people and the movement experiences through public transport services have emerged to be associated with negative emotions. A deeper understanding of mechanisms and processes that interest the link between urban space and psychological disease can contribute to show new directions for the improvement of urban life quality and to progress both in psychiatry and in urban planning.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

A tér a marketingben

A tér és térbeliség napjainkban sem játszik fontos szerepet a különféle szervezetek marketingtevékenységében. Tanulmányunkban – a térbeliség és a marketing alapfogalmainak áttekintését követően – bemutatjuk, hogy az üzleti gondolkodásban, a piacokról folyó diskurzusban, illetve ezen belül különösen a stratégiai marketingben mely területeken azonosíthatók térbeli problémák.A marketing térvonatkozásainak elméleti megalapozásához röviden ismertetjük a társadalmi térfogalom különféle megközelítéseit a társadalomtudományokban (regionális tudomány, társadalomföldrajz, közgazdaságtan, szociológia). A tér elméleti és alkalmazott közgazdaságtani értelmezését követően foglalkozunk a marketingre vonatkozó elképzelésekkel.Röviden bemutatjuk a marketing hazai és nemzetközi fogalmi megközelítéseit, és a marketing kotleri értelemben vett (tágan értelmezett) modelljét felhasználva emeljük ki annak explicit és implicit térvonatkozásait, rámutatunk a termék, az ár, az értékesítés és a kommunikációs stratégia térbeli sajátosságaira, a kapcsolati marketing, a társadalmilag felelős marketing és belső marketing területi aspektusaira. Számos példával illusztráljuk, hogy a marketing erőteljesen térbe ágyazott, így amellett érvelünk, hogy a hatékonyabb marketinggondolkodásban figyelembe kell venni a térbeli kapcsolódásokat, területi meghatározottságokat.A geomarketing-gondolkodásmódban, melynek szükségességére hívjuk fel a figyelmet, a térbeliség nem szűkül le a telephelyválasztásra és az értékesítéstervezésre, hanem áthatja a marketing egészét.

The Impact of Perceived Visual Complexity of Mobile Online Shops on User's Satisfaction

ABSTRACTThe use of Internet‐enabled mobile devices (i.e., smartphones and tablets) for shopping purposes has gained in relevance among consumers. As mobile technologies become increasingly powerful, richer modes of presentation (e.g., videos and animated pictures) are used to design mobile online shops resulting in increased visual complexity. Given the importance of fluent mobile web site processing during typically short interactive sessions and the need to bridge a gap in prior research, this article explores the effects of perceived visual complexity on consumers’ perceptions and behavior‐related intentions when using mobile online shops. The findings from two empirical studies (i.e., an online survey and an experimental study) conducted among mobile device‐using online shoppers illustrate that perceived visual complexity negatively influences individuals’ satisfaction with their mobile shopping experience, whereas their channel‐specific satisfaction enhances their loyalty to the online retailer. Customers’ perceived psychological costs (i.e., time and effort costs as well as spatial crowding perceptions) partially mediate the relationship between visual complexity perceptions and satisfaction. As the results of the laboratory experiment show, the mediating role of perceived spatial crowding in the relationship between perceived visual complexity and satisfaction depends on the mobile device individuals use to visit an online shop. Hence, this relationship is mediated by perceptions of spatial crowding only when online shop visitors use a smartphone rather than a tablet.

Lateralization of Interaural Level Differences with Multiple Electrode Stimulation in Bilateral Cochlear-Implant Listeners.

There is currently no accepted method of mapping bilateral cochlear-implant (BiCI) users to maximize binaural performance, but the current approach of mapping one ear at a time could produce spatial perceptions that are not consistent with a sound's physical location in space. The goal of this study was to investigate the perceived intracranial lateralization of bilaterally synchronized electrical stimulation with a range of interaural level differences (ILDs) and to determine a method to produce relatively more centered auditory images when provided multielectrode stimulation. Using direct stimulation, lateralization curves were measured in nine BiCI listeners using 1000-pulses per second (pps), 500-msec constant-amplitude pulse trains with ILDs that ranged from -20 to +20 clinical current units (CUs). The stimuli were presented bilaterally at 70 to 80% of the dynamic range on single or multiple electrode pairs. For the multielectrode pairs, the ILD was applied consistently across all the pairs. The lateralization response range and the bias magnitude at 0 CU ILD (i.e., the number of CUs needed to produce a centered auditory image) were computed. Then the levels that elicit a centered auditory image with single-electrode stimulation were used with multielectrode stimulation to determine if this produced fewer significant biases at 0 CU ILD. Lastly, a multichannel ILD processing model was used to predict lateralization for the multielectrode stimulation from the single-electrode stimulation. BiCI listeners often perceived both single- and multielectrode stimulation at 0-CU ILD as not intracranially centered. For single-electrode stimulation, 44% of the lateralization curves had relatively large (≥5 CU) bias magnitudes. For the multielectrode stimulation, 25% of the lateralization curves had large bias magnitudes. After centering the single-electrode pairs, the percentage of multielectrode combinations that produced large biases significantly decreased to only 4% (p < 0.001, McNemar's test). The lateralization with multielectrode stimulation was well predicted by a model that used unweighted or weighted average single-electrode lateralization percepts across electrode pairs (87 or 90%, respectively). Current BiCI mapping procedures can produce an inconsistent association between a physical ILD and the perceived location across electrodes for both single- and multielectrode stimulation. Explicit centering of single-electrode pairs using the perceived centered intracranial location almost entirely corrects this problem and such an approach is supported by our understanding and model of across-frequency ILD processing. Such adjustments might be achieved by clinicians using single-electrode binaural comparisons. Binaural abilities, like sound localization and understanding speech in noise, may be improved if these across-electrode perceptual inconsistencies are removed.

EDITORIAL FOREWORD

This issue centers on two predominant themes: space, boundaries, and belonging from the end of empire to the early nation-state era; and the relationship between political discourse, political praxis, and values. The first section, “Belonging, Boundaries, and Law,” opens with Asher Kaufman's article, “Belonging and Continuity: Israeli Druze and Lebanon, 1982–2000,” on the spatial perceptions and practices of communities in the Middle East under the nation-state. Kaufman observes that only over the past few decades have scholars of the post–World War I order in the region begun to question “the ‘nation-state’ as the natural geographical and political unit of analysis.” Using Druze citizens of Israel before, during, and after Israel's occupation of South Lebanon as his case, he readjusts the lens toward substate, suprastate, and trans-state dynamics. Until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Druze communal and religious networks had spanned the whole of bilād al-shām, but these were radically interrupted by Israel's emergence as a bounded polity whose borders with its neighbors were reputedly sealed. This rupture precipitated the emergence of an Israeli Druze community that, isolated from broader Druze communal life and institutional frames, was expected to be loyal to the new state. Eschewing a national frame, Kaufman reveals how Druze, despite these obstacles, actually maintained “crossborder ties through marriage, licit and illicit trade, and religious practices.” Paradoxically, it was Israel's invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and its eighteen-year occupation of the South that allowed for a resumption of pre-1948 spatial practices, though these were complicated by Israeli Druze's multiple and sometimes conflicting allegiances. Such practices, restricted again after the Israeli withdrawal of 2000, continued in limited fashion until the start of the Syrian Civil War, which has propelled Israeli Druze to organize politically in support of Druze in Syria. Observing that the Druze continue to live in state and suprastate spatial scales, Kaufman proposes “using the concept ‘hybrid spatial scale’ as a tool for studying communities such as the Druze that operate on multiple territorial scales.”

BELONGING AND CONTINUITY: ISRAELI DRUZE AND LEBANON, 1982–2000

AbstractThis article analyzes spatial perceptions and practices of Druze citizens of Israel before, during, and after the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon in 1982−2000. It argues that the opening of the Israel–Lebanon border in 1982 and its closing in 2000 had three effects: it generated internal social, political, and cultural changes within the community in Israel; it changed the relationship of the Druze with the State of Israel; and it reestablished strong ties with their coreligionists in Lebanon and Syria. Drawing insight from the field of border studies, the article shows how Druze citizens of Israel live concomitantly in state and suprastate spatial scales, forming a third, integrated or hybrid, spatial scale. The article proposes using the concept “hybrid spatial scale” as a tool for studying communities such as the Druze that operate on multiple territorial scales.

Changing Spatial Perceptions of Museums

Exhibition venues convenience in buildings owns areas are important. Exhibition venues' being authentic, mysterious, attracting and practical carries a big importance with regard to exhibition culture. Also interior areas' convenience for exhibition and visitation is substantial for planning exhibition areas. Historical museum buildings and modern buildings are always compared to each other. For example, a modern technology or science exhibition is expected to be held in a museum building associated with technology. When colors picked for venue background or plinths, even the frame of the art work, color of the wall, resting areas, sitting groups, shape and color of seats is directly proportional with the material, audience will intensely enjoy the exhibition. This issue and the solutions to be find for the problems occurring belongs to interior venue designators of the museum. In museum and gallery exhibition expert should spot the problems related to exhibition beforehand and aim to find solutions for these.

Overcoming the Iron Gates: Austrian Transport and River Regulation on the Lower Danube, 1830s–1840s

AbstractThis article deals with early efforts to facilitate steam navigation between Vienna and Constantinople along the Danube. In addition to analyzing the complex negotiation processes that enabled the first regulation project at the so-called Iron Gates, a narrow gorge situated at the Austrian-Ottoman border, it assesses ways in which the new shipping connection transformed the cultural and spatial perceptions of travelers. The article argues that even though the plan for making the Iron Gates navigable was set out on the drawing boards of engineers and in the cabinets in Pest and Vienna, local circumstances changed its practical implementation in a number of important ways. The success of this major engineering operation relied on close cooperation among hydrological experts, state representatives, and entrepreneurs, all of whom had different stakes in the project but still shared a common interest. Establishing a shipping connection to the Black Sea along the Danube was thus the result of an alignment of interests among Hungarian, Viennese, and local Ottoman authorities; a careful match between theoretical knowledge and practical engineering work; and, last but not least, the surmounting of a mental separation between “Orient” and “Occident.”

Mechanisms for Development of Scenography Galleries Iraq Natural History Museum

Mechanisms for Development of Scenography Galleries Iraq Natural History Museum

Egocentric Direction and Position Perceptions are Dissociable Based on Only Static Lane Edge Information.

When observers perceive several objects in a space, at the same time, they should effectively perceive their own position as a viewpoint. However, little is known about observers’ percepts of their own spatial location based on the visual scene information viewed from them. Previous studies indicate that two distinct visual spatial processes exist in the locomotion situation: the egocentric position perception and egocentric direction perception. Those studies examined such perceptions in information rich visual environments where much dynamic and static visual information was available. This study examined these two perceptions in information of impoverished environments, including only static lane edge information (i.e., limited information). We investigated the visual factors associated with static lane edge information that may affect these perceptions. Especially, we examined the effects of the two factors on egocentric direction and position perceptions. One is the “uprightness factor” that “far” visual information is seen at upper location than “near” visual information. The other is the “central vision factor” that observers usually look at “far” visual information using central vision (i.e., foveal vision) whereas ‘near’ visual information using peripheral vision. Experiment 1 examined the effect of the “uprightness factor” using normal and inverted road images. Experiment 2 examined the effect of the “central vision factor” using normal and transposed road images where the upper half of the normal image was presented under the lower half. Experiment 3 aimed to replicate the results of Experiments 1 and 2. Results showed that egocentric direction perception is interfered with image inversion or image transposition, whereas egocentric position perception is robust against these image transformations. That is, both “uprightness” and “central vision” factors are important for egocentric direction perception, but not for egocentric position perception. Therefore, the two visual spatial perceptions about observers’ own viewpoints are fundamentally dissociable.

Roads in China's Borderlands: Interfaces of spatial representations, perceptions, practices, and knowledges

AbstractSince the beginning of the twenty-first century, the tarmac road network in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwest China has been greatly expanded. The total length of roads increased from about 30,000 kilometres in 1999 to more than 146,000 kilometres in 2008. Though roads are considered by the state to be instruments of economic development, in multi-ethnic border regions like Xinjiang, the role of an efficient road network in the construction of the Chinese state's imaginary ‘bounded space’ is arguably just as crucial. With the help of Lefebvre's (1991) and Soja's (1999) conceptualization of space, this article explores the multiple spatial figurations of which roads are a part in Xinjiang. The article starts from ‘the mappable’ dimension of the expanding road network, and moves on to discuss perceptions and representations related to this expansion, before finally discussing how individuals creatively explore its fissures and hidden pockets.

Medijska percepcija prostornih identiteta: konstrukcija imaginativne karte dalmatinske unutrašnjosti

Koristeći odabrani informativni medij kao izvor podataka o percepciji prostora, u radu se istražuju imena korištena u svakodnevnoj komunikaciji za identitet pet područja dalmatinske unutrašnjosti: Zagoru, Bukovicu, Ravne kotare, Zabiokovlje i Neretvanski kraj. Analizom i pretragom arhive odabranoga medijskog izvora uz detaljno razrađen skup kriterija te izdvajanjem i prostornom klasifikacijom geografskih imena nastoje se prepoznati i definirati prostorni obuhvati percepcije pojedinih regija kao misaonih modela (koncept vernakularne regije). Dobivenim rezultatima za pet vernakularnih regija, standardiziranim na razini službenih upravnih jedinica, konstruira se imaginativna karta dalmatinskoga zaobalja kao odraz kolektivne predodžbe njihova prostornog obuhvata.

The Cool Scent of Power: Effects of Ambient Scent on Consumer Preferences and Choice Behavior

The present research examines how ambient scents affect consumers' spatial perceptions in retail environments, which in turn influence customers' feelings of power and, thus, product preference and purchasing behavior. Specifically, the authors demonstrate that in a warm- (vs. cool-) scented and thus perceptually more (vs. less) socially dense environment, people experience a greater (vs. lesser) need for power, which manifests in increased preference for and purchase of premium products and brands. This research extends knowledge on store atmospherics and customer experience management through the effects of ambient scent on spatial perceptions and builds on recent research on power in choice contexts.

Young artists and the development of artistic quarters in Polish cities

The phenomenon of artistic quarters has been explored by many researchers interested in the spatial behaviours of artists in North American and Western European cities. Their analyses have often focused on the impact of this occupational group on transformations of selected urban areas: the arrival of artists as pioneers in degraded, problem neighbourhoods and the evolution of those neighbourhoods, which then attract more established artists, followed by creative professionals and non-creative gentrifiers. As over time the built environment, functions, cultural, gastronomic offer and ambiance of such areas change significantly, their progressive mainstreaming and commercialization prompt some artists to venture into new districts and spaces. The article first offers a review of existing findings with respect to artistic quarters and their transformations. The discussion of the possible stages of development of artistic quarters present in literature is followed by the application of this theoretical framework in the context of Polish cities using the examples of Krakow and Katowice. These significant regional capitals represent two major types of urban centres in Poland: a city with medieval roots, and a city which emerged during the 19th-century industrialisation process. The phases of evolution of the artistic quarters in both cities are analysed by examining the spatial perceptions of students of artistic majors. The analysis shows that the transformations of urban spaces in terms of their functions and perceptions as artistic quarters are not as straightforward and linear as earlier studies might suggest. Krakow’s more vibrant artistic life and its historic, concentric urban structure, combined with strong commercial pressures, are conducive to the development of new artistic quarters, although its traditional city centre continues to some extent to maintain its position on the artistic map of the city. In contrast, in Katowice the chaotic spatial structure of the heart of this historic industrial region makes the flow of artists more difficult and less likely, as they tend to concentrate in a poorly delineated area of the inner city. In addition, as the case studies reveal, spatial choices of artists are not only dependent on a city’s development path and its built environment but are also to a significant extent shaped by the diverse artistic backgrounds of its creatives and a host of factors linked with post-socialist transformation and neoliberal urban policies.

How Globalization Really Happens: Remembering Activism in the Transformation of Istanbul

AbstractOver the past 20 years it has become accepted wisdom that Istanbul has become a ‘global city', transformed in tandem with a raft of neoliberal economic policies. What is the relevant history of this globalization? A muted local knowledge possessed by Istanbul's inhabitants is that the military coup in 1980 was the crucial event in the re‐engineering of the city. Yet exactly here a contradiction emerges: despite this acknowledgement, there is apparently little public memory about what it was like to study, work and agitate in Istanbul in the ‘crisis' years before the coup. Based on extensive interviews with people active in political fractions in the late 1970s, this article privileges a phenomenological approach to identify spatial practices, performances and perceptions of activists that generated and structured Istanbul's expanding urban environment in that period. Further, it shows how this history is relevant for comprehending both the ‘micro‐causes' of the coup as well as important dimensions of Turkish politics in the present, each of which cast illuminating light on Istanbul's experience of globalization.

Habsburg bewegt: Topografien der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie ed. by Miklós Fenyves et al. (review)

Reviewed by: Habsburg bewegt: Topografien der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie ed. by Miklós Fenyves et al. Susanne Kelley Miklós Fenyves, Amália Kerekes, Bálint Kovács, and Magdolna Orosz, eds., Habsburg bewegt: Topografien der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie. Budapester Studien zur Literaturwissenschaft. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2013. 293 pp. Habsburg bewegt is the seventeenth volume in the series Budapester Studien zur Literaturwissenschaft, edited by Magdolna Orosz and published by Peter Lang since 2001. The book is a product of Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, with not only the four editors but also more than half of the authors associated with the institution at the time they were published in this volume. It is the German-published book that resulted from the research project “Räume der Identität: Kulturelle Topografien der deutschsprachigen Kultur der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie” (the other book publication is in Hungarian). This volume comprises of sixteen articles grouped into the four sections “Raumbilder,” “Exotik,” “Filmtourismus,” and “Utopien.” A definite strength of this volume is the variety of thematic and methodological approaches to the overarching theme. The book exemplifies the effectiveness of an interdisciplinary approach to a research project, particularly when the broad focus is a geographic and cultural space or moment to be explored from multiple angles. The sixteen articles illuminate the topic of cultural production in and about Austria-Hungary through the lens of spatial perceptions in many different genres. The authors’ analyses include the topics of urban planning and the fictional and nonfictional representation of urban centers; the genres of travel texts, including travel fiction, travelogues, and travel guides; as well as biographical texts, operetta, and film (documentary, travel, adventure, and horror). The first section on spatial representations focuses on travel texts in a broad definition of the genre. The section that focuses on “the exotic” includes articles that illuminate the contexts of nonheterogeneous [End Page 122] spaces. The third article grouping is the only one categorized by genre, containing three articles on films. The last group of three articles is determined as depictions of utopias. Unfortunately, this organization of the articles does not best serve the strengths of the book as a whole. Some of the articles, in fact, offer much more interesting research contributions than the emphasis communicated by the title or section heading. In contrast to other anthologies with contributions by academics scattered around a country or world, much of Habsburg bewegt offers research produced in a significantly small productive space (faculty and graduate students in Budapest), thereby offering a unique and concentrated perspective on the geographic, cultural, as well as historical space of Austria-Hungary. In fact, the articles that do not include a connection with today’s Hungary are the exception. By publishing a German-language volume on the research produced in the “Räume der Identität” project, the book’s editors contribute to the research body on Austria-Hungary, which is a uniquely focused research perspective. Hungary, in particular Budapest, represents an enriching subtopic in the volume as it is the underlying focus of a number of included articles, which combine to create an interdisciplinary discussion of the city space. The reader learns about Budapest’s city marketing in a comparative analysis of the “Stadtwäldchen” and the Vienna Prater around 1900, the image of Budapest’s 7th district through the writings and person of the psychologist Ferenc Mérei, as well as a post- 1915 utopian alternative in which Budapest takes on a world-important role. Another underlying theme of the volume is the challenging of genre concepts through the analysis of works that expand the limits of their traditional definitions. A number of articles in the volume explore tropes of tourism and travel in connection with the genres of their representation, among them analyses of war tourism and the film genres of the travel and road movie. By placing Hungary and Budapest at the center of this research volume on Habsburg, the editors also imply a challenge to Vienna as the geographically and culturally most interesting research location and subject of the era and location. Authors included in this volume who are less commonly found in German- and English-language research on Habsburg...

Responsive Eyes

Responsive Eyes: Urban Logistics and Kinetic Environments for the 1968 Mexico City Olympics looks closely at a series of temporary designed environments created for the organizing committee of the 1968 Mexico City Olympics. Integrating architecture, visual communication, and mass media, the design team created kinetic environments, or spaces that estranged user-beholders’ visual and spatial perceptions, inviting immersion and interaction to produce a holistic image of a thoroughly modern, socially integrated Mexico at a time when this view of Mexico was not necessarily held by audiences at home or abroad. The team’s design choices demonstrated cosmopolitan awareness of global aesthetics and discursive currents, including optical and kinetic art as well as recent advances in scientific investigation that inspired new modes of urban vision and engagement, part of an international renewal of modernist techniques and aspirations. These environments also responded to more local concerns, including Mexico City’s ongoing capitalist urbanization and reticulation of the modernist architect’s professional and social purchase in Mexico in light of increasing globalization. By situating the Olympic environments within the larger context of exhibitions of kinetic art and art happenings from the period, George F. Flaherty highlights the possibilities and limits of transformation envisaged by Mexico 68’s kinetic environments, arguing that their design provides a window through which to assess Mexican architects’ claim to act as expert mediators between the city and state, architecture and art, and Mexico and the wider world.

Basic Study for New Assistive Technology Based on Brain Activity During Car Driving

The purpose of this research is develop assistive robots and apparatuses. There is a pressing need to develop new systems that assist and act for car driving and wheelchairs for the elderly as the population ages. In developing systems, it is thought to be important to examine behaviors spatial recognition. Experiments have therefore been performed to examine human spatial perceptions, especially left- and rightside visual recognition, while cars being driven using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Previous research found significant differences in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the left cranial hemisphere during virtual driving and actual driving tasks. This paper discusses the measurement of brain activity during car driving. A detailed analysis was performed by segmentalizing brain activity during driving based on the motion of subjects, and we report on the relationship between brain activity and movement perception during driving.

Expression of the place names and the spatial perceptions in ancient Japan

Expression of the place names and the spatial perceptions in ancient Japan

Estudio psicometrico del test de matrices progresivas de Raven a colores en estudiantes de primaria de Lima Metropolitana

Se realizó el estudio psicométrico del Test de Matrices Progresivas de Raven a colores, que es un instrumento no verbal que evalúa la habilidad para hacer comparaciones, razonar por analogía y organizar percepciones espaciales dentro de un todo relacionado sistemáticamente, se diseñó principalmente como una medida de factor "g" de Spearman o inteligencia general, que está constituida por dos componentes identificados como habilidad educativa y habilidad reproductiva. Participaron en el estudio 2496 alumnos de las siete USEs de Lima Metropolitana que se encontraban cursando del 1ro al 6to grado de primaria, con edades entre los 6 y 11 años, seleccionados en base a un muestreo probabilístico bietápico. Los resultados del análisis psicométrico del test demuestran que el instrumento permite obtener puntajes confiables, a través del método de consistencia interna. Asimismo, el análisis de factores permitió obtener la validez de constructo de la prueba, observándose que los ítems conforman un sólo factor que explica el 76% de la varianza de las puntuaciones. Se elaboraron los baremos correspondientes a cada grupo de edad. El análisis de los resultados destaca la comparación con otros estudios, las diferencias entres los alumnos de los colegios estatales y los no estatales, y la diferencia encontrada entre alumnas y alumnos. Se utilizan criterios educacionales y sociales en la discusión y explicación de los resultados.