Spanish Parents Research Articles

Is the Predisposition to Have More Children Beneficial among Parents with Only One Child? Evidence from Spanish Parents.

The fertility deficit in many European countries is related to a low rate of second births. Understanding the factors associated with the predisposition of one-child parents to have more children could contribute to the search for solutions to this social problem. Although previous evidence highlights the role of employment and social factors, psychological factors have been poorly investigated. This study examines the relationship between different psychosocial factors (rumination, personality, life satisfaction, perfectionism, social support, parental stress, guilt linked to work–family conflict, age and child temperament) and parents’ predisposition to have more children. The sample consisted of 96 one-child Spanish parents whose child was in early childhood education (59.3% women; Mage = 37.41). The results show that one-child parents with the predisposition to have more children, compared to those without a predisposition to have more children, showed higher levels of life satisfaction, extroversion and adaptive perfectionism but lower levels of rumination and parental stress. The social implications of these findings and how they may affect parenting today are discussed.

Parents’ Perspectives about Special Education Needs during COVID-19: Differences between Spanish and English-Speaking Parents

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore parents’ perspectives about the special education process during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sample consisted of Spanish-speaking and English-speaking parents (N = 102) of children receiving special education services. Results indicated that language (English or Spanish), but not household income or parental education, was significantly associated with whether or not a child was receiving special education services during COVID-19, such that English-speaking parents were more likely to report that their child was receiving services relative to Spanish-speaking parents. The same predictors along with consideration of culture were used to examine the level of challenge children experience with online special education services. Language and consideration of one’s culture were significantly associated with the level of challenge children experienced when receiving online special education services, in which Spanish-speaking parents and parents who perceived that the IEP team rarely considered their child’s culture reported having more difficulty. Qualitative responses suggested that most parents were worried about their children regressing in academic gains. Preliminary results emphasize the need for understanding the perspectives of parents in navigating special education services to enhance equity in service access.

The Family-Centred Practices Scale: Psychometric properties of the Spanish version for use with families with children with Down syndrome receiving early childhood intervention.

BackgroundThe Family‐Centred Practices Scale (FCPS) assesses the degree to which staff in early childhood intervention and development centres use this therapeutic approach. However, there is no adaptation of this scale to families of children with Down syndrome, which is one of the most prevalent intellectual disabilities in early intervention.ObjectivesTo validate and analyse the psychometric properties of the FCPS in Spanish parents with children with Down syndrome receiving early childhood intervention.MethodsDescriptive analyses, exploratory factor analysis (n = 131), confirmatory factor analysis (n = 126) and scale reliability analyses were performed. In addition, the invariance of the scale by parents' age and gender was assessed, and a longitudinal analysis of the scores was performed.ResultsA new scale was obtained with a two‐factor structure, similar to the original version, but with fewer items. Goodness‐of‐fit indices were excellent (root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] [95% confidence interval {CI}] = 0.02 [0.01; 0.04]; comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.98; Tucker–Lewis index [TLI] = 0.97; root mean residual [RMR] = 0.02; goodness‐of‐fit index [GFI] = 0.91; adjusted GFI [AGFI] = 0.90). However, the measure was not gender invariant. Additionally, internal consistency of the two dimensions showed high values in this sample, and comparing the means between the two measurement time points (initial and at about 6 months) showed no differences; the test was powerful but had a very small effect size.ConclusionsThe psychometric properties of this FCPS are adequate, and it uses fewer items, which makes it faster to apply and gives it better clinical applicability. This new version of the scale is a valid, reliable tool for evaluating family‐centred practices in Spanish families with children with Down syndrome.

How Much Do Parents Know About Pain in Their Children?

Adequate pain control is essential to the comprehensive management of pediatric patients within the emergency department.The aim of this study is to evaluate parents' knowledge about pain in the pediatric population patient and secondarily describe erroneous concepts that can affect a correct children's pain management. A single-center descriptive study of cross-sectional surveys was performed between October and December 2018, with a previously validated ad hoc and anonymous questionnaire consisting of 9 items. All parents/guardians participating in the study had a child aged 0 to 18 years who had been admitted to the emergency department. Sixty-nine percent (n = 315) were women, 49.9% (n = 226) had university degrees and only 11% (n = 50) had professions related to the healthcare system. A linear association was observed between the number of correct answers and the level of education (β = 1.04; 95% confidence interval, 0.76-1.32; P < 0.001), as well as between parents with professions related to the healthcare system compared with other professions (61.4% vs 51.2% with P = 0.005). The responses of Spanish parents offered better results than answers obtained from parents from the American continent (56.4% vs 41.4% with P < 0.001). No differences were observed between parents of children with chronic diseases. In our study, we observed that a considerable percentage of parents hold misconceptions about how children express pain, and therefore, it would be necessary to encourage formation programs for parents to help identify, evaluate, and correctly treat pain in their children.

How Did the COVID-19 Lockdown Affect Children and Adolescent's Well-Being: Spanish Parents, Children, and Adolescents Respond.

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown strategies have been widely used to contain SARS-CoV-2 virus spread. Children and adolescents are especially vulnerable to suffering psychological effects as result of such measures. In Spain, children were enforced to a strict home lockdown for 42 days during the first wave. Here, we studied the effects of lockdown in children and adolescents through an online questionnaire.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Spain using an open online survey from July (after the lockdown resulting from the first pandemic wave) to November 2020 (second wave). We included families with children under 16 years-old living in Spain. Parents answered a survey regarding the lockdown effects on their children and were instructed to invite their children from 7 to 16 years-old (mandatory scholar age in Spain) to respond a specific set of questions. Answers were collected through an application programming interface system, and data analysis was performed using R.Results: We included 1,957 families who completed the questionnaires, covering a total of 3,347 children. The specific children's questionnaire was completed by 167 kids (7–11 years-old), and 100 adolescents (12–16 years-old). Children, in general, showed high resilience and capability to adapt to new situations. Sleeping problems were reported in more than half of the children (54%) and adolescents (59%), and these were strongly associated with less time doing sports and spending more than 5 h per day using electronic devices. Parents perceived their children to gain weight (41%), be more irritable and anxious (63%) and sadder (46%). Parents and children differed significantly when evaluating children's sleeping disturbances.Conclusions: Enforced lockdown measures and isolation can have a negative impact on children and adolescent's mental health and well-being. In future waves of the current pandemic, or in the light of potential epidemics of new emerging infections, lockdown measures targeting children, and adolescents should be reconsidered taking into account their infectiousness potential and their age-specific needs, especially to facilitate physical activity and to limit time spent on electronic devices.

Spanish Adaptation of the Family Involvement Questionnaire - High School: Version for Parents

Many studies highlight the importance of parental involvement in the academic performance of children and adolescents across subject areas. In view of the lack of instruments in Spain to assess family involvement of parents of adolescents, we undertook this study to develop the Spanish adaptation of the Family Involvement Questionnaire - High School version (FIQ-HS). The sample consisted of 928 parents (85.7 % females) with adolescent sons and daughters. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses substantiated the expected three-factor structure (home-school communication, school-based activities, and home-based activities), though seven poorly functioning items were removed. The results show that this instrument has adequate psychometric properties, good reliability, and convergence with another measure of family adaptability and cohesion. Therefore, the FIQ-HS is adequate for the assessment of family involvement in Spanish parents.

The value of parenting: gendered time expectations among the Spanish middle class

This paper analyses the gendered expectations of time of Spanish middle-class parents. The main goal is to understand how parents value their parenting time. Parents embody a specific social structuring of the everyday that is both gendered and individualist. The claim of this paper is that the value of parenting time, despite being expressed in individual terms, is shaped by gendered social expectations. The methodological strategy includes the conduction of semi-structured interviews and participatory photography. The qualitative sample is composed of 28 professional parents with children under three living in Barcelona. The results reveal gendered time expectations happen outside negotiation. They are not a strategic outcome, but the relational consequence of the structured value of time in capitalist societies.

Work-Family Guilt in Spanish Parents: Analysis of the Measurement, Antecedents and Outcomes from a Gender Perspective.

This research work had three objectives: (1) to analyze the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Work–Family Guilt Scale, (2) to examine its invariance according to gender, and (3) to study the relationship between work–family guilt (WFG) and the different proposed antecedent (e.g., hours spent working, social support, rumination, and personality) or consequential factors (e.g., life satisfaction), noting any gender differences. The incidental sample comprised 225 parents who were in paid work and had at least one child attending nursery school (49.1% women; age of total sample = 36.88 on average). Multiple-group and confirmatory factor analyses, correlations, multiple regression, and moderation analyses were carried out. The WFGS reflected the same factorial structure in men and women, with two main factors: work interfering with family guilt (WIFG) and family interfering with work guilt (FIWG). No gender differences were found. The discrepancy associated with perfectionism was the only variable that was found to be a predictor of FIWG. The major predictors of WIFG were brooding from rumination and the number of hours spent working. WIFG was also associated with lower life satisfaction in women. The implications of these results are discussed, stressing the need to promote work–family reconciliation policies.

The effect of a cluster-randomized controlled trial on lifestyle behaviors among families at risk for developing type 2 diabetes across Europe: the Feel4Diabetes-study

BackgroundThis study investigated the effect of the Feel4Diabetes-intervention, a 2-year multilevel intervention, on energy balance-related behaviors among European families at risk for developing type 2 diabetes. Intervention effects on self-reported physical activity, sedentary behavior and eating behaviors were investigated across and within the participating countries: Belgium, Finland, Greece, Spain, Hungary and Bulgaria.MethodsFamilies were recruited through schools, located in low socio-economic status areas. In total, 4484 families at risk for developing type 2 diabetes were selected using the FINDRISC-questionnaire. Parents’ and children’s energy balance-related behaviors data were collected by questionnaires at three time points (baseline, mid- and post intervention). Families assigned to the intervention group were invited to participate in a 2-year school-, community-, and family-based intervention to promote a healthier lifestyle, including counseling sessions (first intervention year) and text messages (second intervention year). Families assigned to the control group received standard care, including medical check-up results and recommendations and tips regarding a healthy lifestyle. To assess the intervention-effects, Mixed Models were conducted using the R-Package “lmer “with R v3.2.ResultsSignificant intervention effects were found on a certain number of families’ lifestyle behaviors. Significant favorable intervention effects were detected on parents’ water consumption and consumption of fruit and vegetables, and on children’s consumption of sweets and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Analyses by country revealed significant favorable intervention effects on water consumption and on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in Belgian parents and on fruit and vegetable consumption among Belgian children, on sweets consumption among Spanish parents and children, and on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity among Finnish children. Unfavorable intervention effects were found on the consumption of soft drinks and sugar-containing juices among Hungarian children and parents, while when examining the intervention effects for the overall population and per country, 10 from the 112 investigated outcome variables were improved in the intervention group compared to the control group (9%).ConclusionsThe Feel4Diabetes-intervention managed to improve a certain number of targeted lifestyle behaviors while the intervention was not effective on a large number of targeted lifestyle behaviors. The findings of the current study are encouraging, but further research is needed on how we can further improve effectiveness of lifestyle interventions to prevent type 2 diabetes in families at risk.Trial registrationThe Feel4Diabetes-study is registered with the clinical trials registry http://clinicaltrials.gov, ID: 643708.

An Exploratory Study about Patterns of Parental Home Literacy Activities during the COVID-19 Confinement among Spanish Families

ABSTRACT Research Findings: The COVID-19 pandemic is leading to an unprecedented crisis worldwide. With schools closed, the frequency with which Spanish parents engage in home literacy activities with their children between the ages of 2 and 8 and the sociodemographic variables that influence this collaboration are unknown. The present research aimed to understand interactions among parents and children in the context of literacy activities at home. A total of 337 Spanish parents completed the Home Literacy Activities Questionnaire (HLAQ). Results from the reliability test showed a good adequacy and consistency (Cronbach’s alpha .85), and a factorial analysis indicated all items could be grouped into four factors: reading activities, writing activities, digital literacy activities, and dialogic-creative literacy activities. A latent class cluster analysis, based on parents’ factorial scores in the HLAQ and their sociodemographic data, suggested four discrete parental clusters: parents prioritizing writing activities, interested in practicing all type of literacy activities, willing to do digital activities, or ready to practice dialogic-creative literacy activities. All indicators and sociodemographic characteristics – the children’s age, the number of children in the family, and the parents’ educational level – were significant and discriminated among the parental clusters. The activities carried out with least frequency were dialogic-creative literacy activities and digital literacy activities. Practice or Policy: Schools, as well as researchers, must be intentional about engaging families who may not be aware of certain activities to support their young children’s literacy skills, in times of crisis, for all children and families, for specific groups of families and children, and at varying grade levels.

Spanish Adaptation and Validation of the Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale

(1) Background: The aim of this study is to obtain an instrument, with robust psychometric properties validated with a Spanish sample, that allows for the evaluation of the emotional and behavioural adjustment of children, as well as the perceived ability of parents to manage their children’s problems. (2) Methods: Data from 2618 Spanish parents of 2–12-year-old children were used to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Child Adjustment and Parent Efficacy Scale. In order to develop the intensity scale, exploratory and confirmatory analyses were carried out, and the reliability, validity, and invariance of the measurement model were estimated. (3) Results: A structure of 25 items grouped into two factors are shown, which allows for the evaluation of emotional and behavioural problems and children’s competencies. The model adjustment indicators were satisfactory. Favourable evidence was obtained for the reliability of the measurement model from two perspectives, internal consistency and composite reliability. The discriminant validity was satisfactory, as was the homogeneity of the measurement model based on child gender. Regarding the self-efficacy scale, confirmatory analysis procedures were also carried out, verifying a good factorial structure. (4) Conclusions: Results support a scale with robust psychometric properties that measure child adjustment and parent self-efficacy. The instrument can help to improve family effectiveness and be useful for schools and teachers to promote the well-being of children. The instrument could also be good to evaluate in special contexts, like custody evaluations in a legal or forensic context.

Could Road Safety Education (RSE) Help Parents Protect Children? Examining Their Driving Crashes with Children on Board

Recent evidence suggests that driving behavior and traffic safety outcomes of parents may be influenced by the extent to which they receive information and education on road safety, as well as the fact of driving with their children on board, which may increase their risk perception. However, there are no studies specifically addressing the case of crashes suffered while driving with children. Hence, this study aimed to describe the relationship between road safety education-related variables and parents’ traffic safety outcomes while driving with children on board. For this cross-sectional study, data was retrieved from a sample composed of 165 Spanish parents—all of them licensed drivers—with a mean age of 45.3 years. Through binary logistic regression (logit) analysis, it was found that factors such as gender, having received road safety education (RSE), and having been sanctioned for the performance of risky driving behavior contribute to modulating the likelihood of suffering crashes while driving with children on board. Gender differences showed a riskier status for male parents. In this study, a set of risk factors explaining the involvement in traffic crashes when driving with children as passengers was identified among parents: gender, traffic sanctions, valuation, and exposure to road safety campaigns. Also, substantial limitations in the self-reported degree of received RSE were found, especially considering that risky driving behavior and traffic crash rates with children on board still have a high prevalence among parents.

Custody and Child Symptomatology in High Conflict Divorce: An Analysis of Latent Profiles.

There is much controversy about the impact of joint physical custody on child symptomatology in the context of high interparental conflict. In this study we analyzed child symptomatology with person-centered methodology, identifying differential profiles, considering post-divorce custody, parental symptomatology, and coparenting variables. We examined the association between these profiles and child symptomatology, as well as the mediating role of parenting in that association. The participants were 303 divorced or separated Spanish parents with high interparental conflict. We used the study of latent profiles and the INDIRECT procedure in Mplus. We also controlled for the variables age and number of children, new partners, frequency of the relationship with the ex-partner, time elapsed since the divorce, and gender of the parent. From the parents' perspective, the profile characterized by low parental symptomatology and high coparenting, regardless of the type of custody, was related to children exhibiting less somatic, anxious, and depressive symptomatology, and aggressive behavior. The mediating role of parenting was also identified. Parental symptomatology, coparenting, and parenting are essential for understanding post-divorce child symptomatology and the study highlights importance of person-centered multidimensional models.

Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the Family Centred Practice Scale for use with families with children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BackgroundThe Family-Centered Practices Scale assesses the degree to which staff in Early Childhood Intervention and Development Centers use this approach. However, there is no adaptation of this scale to families of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in early intervention in Spain. Objectives: To validate and analyze the psychometric properties of the Family-Centered Practices scale in Spanish parents with children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Methods: Descriptive analyses, exploratory factor analysis (n1 = 211), confirmatory factor analysis (n2 = 236), and scale reliability analyses were performed. In addition, the invariance of the scale by parents’ age and gender was assessed, and a longitudinal analysis of the scores was performed. Results: A scale with a two-factor structure was obtained, similar to the original version, where the goodness-of-fit indices were excellent (RMSEA [95%CI] = 02[0.01; 0.03]; CFI = 0.97; TLI = 0.98; RMR = 0.02; GFI = 0.96). However, the measure was not invariant in gender, with differences between fathers and mothers. Additionally, the internal consistency of the full scale (α = 0.94, ω = 0.90) and of the two dimensions showed high values in this sample and comparing the means between the two measurement time points showed no differences, the test was powerful had a large effect size. Discussion: The psychometric properties of this scale are adequate, which makes it faster to apply and gives it better clinical applicability. Conclusions: This version of scale in Spanish is a valid, reliable tool for evaluating family-centered practices in families with children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Parents' Perception of the Complementary Baby-Led Weaning Feeding Method: A Validation Study.

This study aims to construct and validate a questionnaire that allows Parents’ Perceptions of the complementary Baby-Led Weaning feeding method (PaPerc-BLW questionnaire) to be evaluated. An instrumental design was used. Five child nutrition experts took part in the development and content validity. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of 216 Spanish parents of infants aged 0–6 months to determine psychometric properties (construct validity and internal consistency). The factor analysis explained 65.12% of variance with three factors (Promoting infant autonomy and development; Infant’s health; Parents’ fear to apply BLW), and internal consistency was α = 0.67. The mean score of the PaPerc-BLW questionnaire for the total sample was 4.14 (DS = 0.64, 95% CI = 4.06–4.23). Significant differences were found in the parents’ perception of baby-led weaning feeding method based on variables as previous children (p ≤ 0.001). Otherwise, the sample included in the study could bias the results, since 98.6% indicated that they were familiar with the BLW method and 62% had previous experience Despite this limitation, the PaPerc-BLW questionnaire offers adequate validity for evaluating parents’ perception of the baby-led weaning method.

Assessing Child-to-Parent Violence With the Child-to-Parent Violence Questionnaire, Parents' Version (CPV-Q-P): Factor Structure, Prevalence, and Reasons.

Child-to-parent violence has dramatically risen in the last decade, becoming a concerning issue in many countries, so research on this issue has also increased. However, most of the studies on this topic have been conducted with samples of adolescents, and very few with samples of parents. In addition, the variety of assessment instruments does not reflect the elements of this type of violence. Thus, the current study was aimed to examine the factor structure, reliability, and validity of the Child-to-parent Violence Questionnaire, parents’ version (CPV-Q-P), in a sample of Spanish parents of adolescents. Moreover, the prevalence rates of the different types of violence and the reasons for violence were also examined. A total of 1,012 Spanish parents of adolescents aged between 12 and 17 years old (55.1% mothers, 44.9% fathers) were assessed using the CPV-Q-P. Data indicated a matrix of four factors with 14 items, assessing psychological violence, physical violence, financial violence, and control/domain over parents, and two factors with 8 items capturing the reasons for child-to-parent violence (instrumental and reactive), with adequate psychometric properties. The more frequent type of violence was control and domain over parents, followed by psychological, financial, and physical violence, with no significant differences between mothers and fathers. Otherwise, instrumental reasons were more frequent than reactive types, with no differences between mothers and fathers. The CPV-Q-P is a useful instrument to assess child-to-parent violence from the parents’ perspective in both professional and research settings.

The dilemmas of parental mediation: Continuities from parenting in general

This article examines how much parent-child interactions around the online world reflect broader, more long-standing parent-child relations and parenting dilemmas. It does so through exploring the meanings that parents give to their parenting practices and the beliefs that underlie parental mediation of their children's online activities as well as the reasons for any differences between their broader normative approach to parental mediation and their actual practices. Qualitative in-depth interviews conducted with 26 Spanish parents of children aged 9 to 16-years-old found that many parents favoured the managed progression of children towards more autonomy and gave reasons why it was important to trust older children. However, the analysis explores a range of dilemmas parents experience when trying to implement these ideals, where issues of privacy, trust and managing that progression all proved to be problematic.

Immediate Psychological Effects of the COVID-19 Quarantine in Youth From Italy and Spain.

The COVID-19 quarantine has affected more than 860 million children and adolescents worldwide, but to date, no study has been developed within Western countries to examine the psychological impact on their lives. The present study aims to examine for the first time the emotional impact of the quarantine on children and adolescents from Italy and Spain, two of the countries most affected by COVID-19. Participants were 1,143 parents of Italian and Spanish children aged 3 to 18 years who completed a survey providing information about how the quarantine affects their children and themselves, compared to before the home confinement. Results show that 85.7% of the parents perceived changes in their children’s emotional state and behaviors during the quarantine. The most frequent symptoms were difficulty concentrating (76.6%), boredom (52%), irritability (39%), restlessness (38.8%), nervousness (38%), feelings of loneliness (31.3%), uneasiness (30.4%), and worries (30.1%). Spanish parents reported more symptoms than Italians. As expected, children of both countries used monitors more frequently, spent less time doing physical activity, and slept more hours during the quarantine. Furthermore, when family coexistence during quarantine became more difficult, the situation was more serious, and the level of stress was higher, parents tended to report more emotional problems in their children. The quarantine impacts considerably on Italian and Spanish youth, reinforcing the need to detect children with problems as early as possible to improve their psychological well-being.

Hygiene and Eating Healthy Habits and Practices in Spanish Families with Children Aged 6 to 14.

During childhood and pre-adolescence, the family environment is key to initiating and consolidating healthy styles in children through a balanced diet and basic hygiene habits. This study analyses hygiene, nutrition and health practices in Spanish families with children between 6 and 14 years of age according to the type of family (nuclear, single-parent or reconstituted) and the quantity, age and gender of the children. A representative Spanish national sample of 1103 Spanish parents, 270 fathers and 833 mothers, with children aged 6 to 14, is analysed. The study is descriptive, using statistical techniques with classic indicators (means, percentages). The results show that nuclear families manifest healthier habits, in general, and consider the consumption of pastries, ultra-processed food and excessive amounts of salt to be harmful. Furthermore, this family typology develops healthy and hygienic habits, such as brushing teeth daily, sleeping at least 8 h a day, drinking a glass of milk a day, eating fish more than once a week and eating fast food sporadically. They are also concerned about their children’s annual medical check-ups (paediatrician and dentist). It is concluded that the family type is related to the hygiene and feeding habits of the children.

Gestión del régimen de visitas, intercambios y comunicación con los hijos e hijas durante la pandemia de la COVID-19

La pandemia ocasionada por la COVID-19 llevó a los gobiernos de la mayoría de los países del mundo, entre ellos España, a decretar el confinamiento de los ciudadanos. Este confinamiento implicaba, en las familias con progenitores separados, repercusiones directas en los regímenes de visitas e intercambios de los hijos/as, encaminando a los progenitores a llegar a un acuerdo o, en su defecto, a una resolución judicial. Con el objetivo de conocer los motivos por los que los progenitores suspenderían los intercambios, y los cambios que se habían efectuado en las estancias y comunicaciones. Un total de 226 progenitores españoles en situación de ruptura de pareja con hijos o hijas sujetos a intercambios, respondieron a un cuestionario online (google form). Los resultados mostraron que los progenitores admitieron una multi-causalidad para la suspensión de los intercambios; que en alrededor de ¾ (70.8%) de los casos se modificó el tiempo de estancia y comunicación con los hijos con un decremento en la tasa de intercambios del 83%, compensado con más contacto telefónico/telemático (92.1%); que estadísticamente en la mitad de los casos se suspendieron las visitas (44.2%), quedando generalmente (85.0%) bajo la custodia de la madre; que los progenitores consensuaron los intercambios en el 47.8% de los casos; que las causas que motivaron significativamente los cambios fueron las legales , el mejor interés del menor (46%; salvaguarda de su salud), la protección de la salud pública (16.1%; no favorecer la transmisión de la COVID-19) y normativas (11.2%; no estar permitidos los desplazamientos). Se discuten las implicaciones de los resultados para el bienestar de los hijos/as y la competencia parental para la resolución de conflictos.