Soviet Type Research Articles

Religious activity and expression of national identity of Ukrainians during the introduction of the new Soviet ritual: 1960’s–1970’s

The party ideologues of the Soviet totalitarian state artificially developed and actively introduced into the life of the titular nation of the Ukrainian SSR a new Soviet ritualism, the main goal of which was to raise from every Ukrainian a Russified citizen of the Soviet type without national identity and religious beliefs, with a Russian consciousness, mentality and language. The article proves that the ancient church and religious traditions and customs of the Ukrainian people continued to be a part of the everyday culture of Ukrainians. The religious activity of representatives of the Ukrainian ethnic group was especially observed during the celebration of Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and other church holidays. And although the number of adherents of religious rites in the republic was different – from less in the East to more in the West, Christian values, despite atheism, continued to be the basis of the spiritual life of the absolute majority of Ukrainians.

Non-Governmental Organizations in Contemporary China: political and legal aspect

The article is devoted to the study of general issues of the non-governmental public organizations in China. The current legislation regulating their legal status is being considered, including law-making acts adopted since the beginning of the "policy of reform and openness". In the Soviet type countries, to which the People's Republic of China belongs, the work of non-governmental organizations cannot conflict with the course of the ruling party. In the PRC, public organizations act as an integral part of a United Front led by the CPC and consisting of various political forces striving for a common goal — the "great revival of the Chinese nation." The activities of opposition public organizations in China are prohibited, and their registration is impossible. The Chinese authorities believe that the interests of the collective are above the interests of the individual, therefore, individuals that do not obey the "mass line" do not have the right to exist. Western experts believe that the absence of oppositional, state-independent public organizations in China does not allow them to be classified as non-governmental. However, Chinese specifics are overlooked, which leads to an incorrect transfer of Western concepts and institutions to Chinese soil and, consequently, allegations of an insufficient degree of democratization of China. The study provides up-to-date statistics on the number of non-governmental public organizations in China in recent years.

Topical Issues in the Study of Soviet Social Policy, 1917−1929

A series of 100th anniversaries of recent years (the First World War, the Revolution of 1917, the Russian Civil War, the introduction of the NEP) has stimulated historians and representatives of related sciences (sociologists, philosophers, political scientists, culturologists, economic historians, etc.) to summarize the study of this turning point for the national history of the period, which is increasingly often regarded as homogeneous (“the time of wars and revolutions”), as well as its immediate consequences, stretching back to the 1920s and 1930s. The works published within the framework of the anniversaries and the discussions that flared up around them more clearly exposed the least studied and controversial aspects of the problems and made it possible to identify urgent tasks for the future. Quite expectedly, the focus was on subjects such as rethinking the causes of the revolutionary events and the role of various social groups in them; comparison of the events of February and October 1917, the degree of discontinuity and continuity of processes and the existence of alternative ways of Russia’s development; characteristics of the armed forces and political movements opposed to the Bolsheviks; the relation of “red” and “white” terror; problems of social stratification in postrevolutionary Russia and the relationship between the concepts of former people, the socially alien, economically dangerous elements, NEPmen; etc. In addition, summarizing the results of studying the revolution and its consequences has contributed to the revival of conceptual discussions about totalitarianism, the social base of the Soviet regime of the 1920s−1930s, and the features of the formation of civil society in Russia, as well as about the conditions for the formation and specifics of the “welfare state” of the Soviet type. At the same time, one should admit that the problem of the social policy of the Bolsheviks, which directly relates to many of the above conceptual or debatable issues, remained practically outside the framework of scientific, historical, and political discussions. Meanwhile, for example, the outcome of the Civil War and the further fate of Russia were largely determined by the nature and priorities of the social policy of the warring parties, the degree of the attractiveness of their slogans for ordinary people in the rear and at the front, as well as the ability to bring these slogans to life. The problems of continuity with the pre-Soviet past of the country, the novelty and relevance for society of the Bolsheviks’ transformations in the social sphere, and their compliance with the global trends of the era also seem key to understanding many debatable issues of early Soviet history. In particular, it is impossible to answer the question about the presence or absence of elements of civil society and the so-called “welfare state” in Soviet Russia without an objective assessment of the social slogans declared by the state and the methods of their implementation, as well as the nature of the interaction between the authorities and society in solving certain topical tasks.

Государственная политика в сфере сельского хозяйства в 1920-е годы

The relevance of the research topic is explained by the fact that outstanding successes in the socialist reorganization of agriculture caused huge changes in the life of the country. Deprived of their production base, the former exploiters did not disappear from life, but their social position changed. Many former exploiters went to work in enterprises and institutions, penetrated the collective farms and state farms. Some of them joined the ranks of declassed elements. In the fight against the dictatorship of the proletariat, the former exploiters used a new, unique tactic — the tactic of “sneak peeks”. The purpose of the study is to conduct an analysis of policy in industry during the NEP period. Tasks: historical and legal analysis of the characteristic features of the NEP as a necessary component of building economic ties and relations in the new state formation; assessment of the results of the economic development of the Soviet type of state under the new economic policy. Methodology. To achieve the stated goal when considering the stated problem, in this article, such methods of scientific knowledge of reality as analysis and synthesis, as well as dialectical, logical, historical, and systemic methods were used. Conclusion. By the end of the recovery period, the country was experiencing an economic boom. The political activity of all social groups in the country increased, including forces hostile to the dictatorship of the proletariat. The poor, on the other hand, turned out to be the least prepared for the new conditions in the countryside. In its activity and organization, it lagged behind other sections of the peasantry. In a number of cases, the inability of the party organizations to rally the poor peasantry together with the middle peasantry in order to secure their strong influence in the soviets also had an effect. As a result of all this, serious shortcomings, weaknesses and mistakes were revealed in the activities of the Soviets.

Soyuznaya ideya: predposylki i argumenty (k 100-letiyu obrazovaniya SSSR)

The dual nature of the trend in the development of the state and law of the Soviet type can be traced in the events of the first decade of Soviet power: innovation was somehow integrated with periodically recurring traditions. However, in the realm of state and territorial structure, Soviet Russia can be considered the inventor of a completely new form of federalism, which was created on the basis of the union idea and came to the fore in the days of the new economic policy.

Plan-Bureaucracy Conflict in the USSR: Soviet Type Firm Organization

SSCB’nin çöküş sürecinin merkezi planlama ve bürokrasi kapsamında tartışıldığı bu çalışma, Sovyet tipi firma örgütlenmesine odaklanmıştır. Literatürde merkezi planlamayla bürokrasi genellikle birlikte çalışan bir alan olarak ele alınmış, bu iki ayrı yapı arasındaki nüanslar çoğunlukla ihmal edilmiştir. Bu da bürokratik yapıdan kaynaklı sorunların hatalı biçimde merkezi planlamaya mal edilmesine yol açmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, SSCB’deki bürokratik mekanizmalarla merkezi planlama olguları arasındaki çatışmayı/ayrımı vurgulamaktır. Birincil kaynakları ele alan literatürden türetilen teorik argümanlardan elde edilen temel bulgu şudur: etkinsizliğin nedeni merkezi planlama değildir. Çöküşü hazırlayan koşullar, ağırlıklı olarak siyasi saiklerle oluşan bürokratik amaçların merkezi planlarla olan çatışmasından ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu tezden yola çıkan çalışma, SSCB’nin merkezi planlama hiyerarşisindeki en küçük karar birimi olan firmaların yönetim ilkelerini analiz ederek bürokrasi ve merkezi planlama arasındaki çelişkiyi ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır.

Transformation of capitalism to enforce ecologically sustainable GDP growth: lessons from Keynes and Schumpeter

An economy with a low stable medium-term growth rate given by ecological needs is only possible after a radical reform of the type of capitalism we have today. In an ecologically sustainable economic system, aggregate demand has to be controlled on a macroeconomic level. Of focal importance is the steering of investment. Here a national credit plan that fixes the national credit volume and to a certain extent the allocation of credit is in the centre. For consumption demand in a low-growth economy it is important that saving is low or in a zero-growth economy even zero, whereas at the same time accumulation of deficits of economic sectors or sub-sectors such as poorer households are not sustainable. Here policies to achieve a more equal distribution of income and wealth are suitable. Although comprehensive government interventions and rules are needed in an ecologically low-growth economy, the recommended system is not comparable with a planned system of the former Soviet type. Whether such an alternative system is understood as a version of highly regulated capitalism or as a new system is a question of taste.

Children during the Winter Traditions in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1961)

The Soviet power sought to liquidate the old traditions and to invent revolutionary ones, as well as to transform some Christian traditions into communist ones in order to constitute a new culture – of Soviet type. Following the analysis of winter traditions in the MSSR that involved children, we conclude that the transformation of the tradition took place only in the official calendar, due to which it could not decisively influence the formation of the ethnocultural identity of the young generation. Despite all the efforts of the political factor, the traditional calendar could not be changed. Regardless of the hostile political and ideological environment, the attachment of the population to traditions, customs, and the Christian Orthodox faith has not been liquidated. The sustainability of the traditions in the consciousness of the society prevented their displacement; they were partially filled with some elements with ideological content. The influence of the environment – partly of the atheist propaganda on behalf of the school and children’s organizations and the religious propaganda on behalf of the family – formed a duplicitous attitude towards religion, forcing children to secretly follow religious cultures. The children found themselves caught between two contradictory worlds: the official Soviet world and the traditional environment from which they originated (family, village, relatives). Authentic values ultimately prevailed spiritually.

New life of the Old Believers of Transbaikalia: towards the “Soviet person” (late 1920s)

In the 1920s, throughout the USSR, there were well-known processes of unification of a heterogeneous social structure, ultimately designed to create a unified Soviet society. The attitude of the Old Believers of Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and Chita District of the Far Eastern Territory to what was happening during this period became one of the most problematic in terms of the introduction of Communist principles. This was recognised by almost all local Party officials and cultural workers. Formally reproducing the structures of Soviet political and economic institutions, adopting technical innovations and the specifics of the "cultural revolution" in their lives – in reality, the Semeiskie Old Believers often did not seek to change their views on the world, religious identity for the sake of forming the Soviet type of personality. The purpose of the work is to analyse the relationship between the authorities and the Old Believers, as well as the everyday perception of the Communist ideology by the latter. Hence, the main problem can be considered the identification of the reaction of the Semeiskie (including the Communists) to the intensified in their community anti-religious propaganda by the late 1920s – the main condition for changing the paradigm of the worldview. Another problem is to research the ideological (educational) aspect of the new way of life and people's attitudes towards it. As a brief conclusion it should be noted that the process of the formation of the Soviet type of personality in the Old Believers’ environment of Transbaikalia by the early 1930s had a formal character of development: the ideologisation of the population with atheistic propaganda were not tied in the minds of people as an indispensable prerequisite for their new cultural life.

Одежда крымских татар в первые годы Советской власти

The article examines the process of Sovietization of the traditional costume of the Crimean Tatars in the 1920s. Researches made by scientists and ethnographers of the studied period confirms the fact of gradual loss of the national identity of the Crimean Tatar traditional costume and transition to the general Soviet type. The factors that influenced this process were: the influence of Russian and European fashion, military conditions, and the general decline of the economy in the country and the famine of the 1920 in the Crimea, the loss of traditional sewing and weaving techniques, the replacement of handmade fabrics with factory fabrics, the use of artificial dyes for dyeing threads. The well-to-do strata of the population and the elderly, in particular, those living in some parts of the foothill and southern coastal parts of the Crimea, were the least susceptible to modern fashion. The national attributes that managed to survive the longest period in the clothes of the Crimean Tatars were headdresses – fes and kalpak. The main features of Soviet clothing were simplicity, efficiency and functionality.

The first ‘Soviet type’ research institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and its Stalin Prize-awarded director, Imre Szörényi

The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (HAS, established in 1825), similar to the academies of the old Soviet bloc, ran a research network from 1950 until 2019 when it was detached from the Academy. The first research institute of the HAS was the Institute of Biochemistry, which started its operation in 1950. Its first director was Imre Szörényi (1905–1959) who lived in emigration in Kiev until he was called back to Hungary in 1950 by the Secretariat of the Hungarian Workers Party. Initially, for a few years research in the Institute was partly influenced by Lepeshinskaya's ‘New Cell Theory’ and Szörényi himself became the chair of the ‘Living Protein’ Committee of the HAS. He returned for more than two years to Kiev where he received a shared Stalin Prize in 1952 for the development of the antibiotic, Microcid. After his final return to Hungary in 1953, he was able to shape the characteristic image of the Institute of Biochemistry, making it one of the leading workshops of Hungarian biochemistry. From 1956 onwards, ideological considerations no longer interfered with the choice of research topics. The relationship between the chemical structure and the specific biological function of enzymes became the main profile of the Institute. In spite of his untimely death, Szörényi exerted a long-lasting influence on Hungarian biochemistry through his disciples.

‘The Soviet Problem’ in Post-Soviet Russian Marxism, or the Afterlife of the USSR

Abstract The present article deals with different Marxist theories on the Soviet experience, which emerged in post-Soviet Russophone Marxist or neo-Marxist scholarship (concurrently with some reference to Marxist traditions in other former Eastern Bloc countries). The article demonstrates that these theories – if we leave the remaining ‘Marxist-Leninists’ of the classical Soviet type aside and focus on critical, post-Soviet Marxism – may be classified as either ‘fundamentally rejectionist’ or ‘Thermidorian’. The former, in line with the seminal criticisms of K. Kautsky and other early opponents of Lenin, reject the socialist nature of the October 1917 Revolution outright. The latter mostly define the Revolution as at least socialist-oriented, but further bifurcate into different varieties of the ‘state capitalism’ thesis with a number of theorists defining Stalinist societies as special varieties of post-revolutionary industrialism essentially different from orthodox capitalism. Most critical post-Soviet Marxists agree, however, that the main vector of Soviet-type regimes’ evolution indeed pointed towards increased class stratification. However, it should be remembered that Soviet-type bureaucracy was a class-in-the-making rather than a class-in-itself or a class-for-itself, and this point is further elaborated in the works of those theorists who prioritise the differences rather than similarities between Soviet-type industrialism and orthodox capitalism.

A nemzeti identitás alakulása a posztszovjet Azerbajdzsánban

Widely known for its diversity of peoples, the Caucasus is home to the so called Transcaucasian states, which include Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Formed as member republics of the Soviet Union in the early 20th century, these nationstates became independent after 1990. Though they in many ways owed their existence to Soviet policy, and of course also to Soviet power, the peoples of this region nevertheless regarded their countries as legitimate nations, and saw themselves as proud custodians of thousands of years of culture and statehood. Like their neighbours, the Azerbaijanis have laid claim to a long history of civilization and development in the Caucasus. Beyond this, they also profess to live in the first democratic state of the Islamic world. This selfdefinition already carries in itself the peculiarities of their peripheral position, namely the hybridity of their collective identity (Bhabha, H. 2004). As part of Islam, but as a result of tsarist Russian expansionist efforts, they became involved in the process of forming “imagined communities” (Anderson, B. 1991) which resulted in the proclamation in 1918 of their shortlived independent nation state. However, the formation of their national identity over the rest of the 20th century was determined by Soviet type state power, which meant the abolition of the role of religion in defining identity. The effects of the Soviet period, in addition to the nature of political leadership, also illustrates continuity in everyday life, even after the break up of the Soviet Union, and in parallel with the revival of Islam. Given its history in the short 20th century, Azerbaijan understandably retains specific post-Soviet characteristics. This article focuses specifically on the effects of power, hegemony and leadership that determined the formation of the Azerbaijani nation. In terms of the national consciousness of Azerbaijanis more generally, the direct and indirect influence on the periphery by centralized leadership, whether Soviet or now Russian, is paramount.

Non-Spiral Development of Domestic Federalism (to readers)

The establishment of the Russian Federation as a sovereign, democratic, federal state caused a surge of interest in searching ways of transition from a formal model of federal relations of the Soviet type to a real model of such relations. The journal Federalism was created 25 years ago to provide a platform for everyone willing express their opinion on this issue. Discussions on its pages continue to this day, despite the fact that the model of national statehood implemented in the country is far from real-federal. However, the fact that the discussion continues shows that the problem of the development of federal relations and regional policy in a country with such a highly complex socio-economic and ethnocultural space is relevant. In this introduction to the readers, the author do not set the task of a detailed presentation of the position on current problems and prospects of Russian federalism. The aim is to show that regional economies require operational management, which cannot always be carried out from the Center. And therefore, the limitation of the powers of the authorities and administrations of the constituent entities of the Federation in this area accompanied by the impossibility of effective control over what is happening from the Center, inevitably makes large business a key figure in this management. This, given the preservation of the “wild” nature of the domestic market, may become an obstacle to strengthening the unity of the country’s economic space.

Анализ конструкции коксовых камер установки замедленного коксования

In this article a literature review of existing delayed coking plants is carried out, and the design features of domestic and foreign coke chambers are revealed. With the help of the final engineering analysis program Ansys, models of reaction apparatuses of these installations are constructed for various material designs. It is revealed that it is impossible to increase the efficiency of operation of the current devices without a significant change in the technological regime, and technological solutions are proposed for the design of new reactors of delayed coking plants. Models of reactors of the modern delayed coking plant and the Soviet type 21–10/700 with minimization of the number of horizontal welds are constructed, and economic calculations are made for the operation of coke chambers with various designs.

Objective and subjective characteristics of the success of post-Soviet youth

The phenomenon of success is covered in many works of philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who study this concept, the ethics of success and the pursuit of it in different social groups. However, achieving success as a special type of activity that is emerging in modern Russia remains largely outside the scope of empirical analysis. This article examines the genesis of the concept of "success" from antiquity to the present day, gives its definition as a subject of empirical research. The study was based on a survey conducted with the participation of the author among young Muscovites (25 - 30 years old). This age group was chosen because for sociological analysis the most interesting is the generational cohort that grew up and formed during the years of the liberal reformation, in a state and society that differ from the state and society of the Soviet type. In this age group, the most interesting are individuals who already have life experience and are implementing effective life strategies. Therefore, a group of Muscovites aged 25–30, who assess themselves as successful people, was selected for the analysis. The analysis of relevant social and socio-psychological characteristics of the group of respondents who define themselves as “successful” is carried out in comparison with the group of “losers”. Comparative analysis showed that these groups implement two life programmes: survival and success, determined by status (education, position, income) and socio-psychological characteristics (attitude to work, methods of selection and setting goals, the level of their implementation, type of rationality). Each of these programmes has its own behavioural logic. Thus, low labour motivation and activity of “losers”, their low production status and very limited material opportunities, dooming them to survival, form a model of social maladjustment that impedes the healthy development of the economy and society. On the contrary, success in life is based on a high personal and material interest in one's work, on dedication to work and financial independence. Personal ways of achieving success play an equally important role here: self-confidence, optimism; the ability to set simple and clear goals for oneself, to show perseverance in their implementation. At the same time, it was revealed that successful young Muscovites remain people who are able to correlate their own and other people's interests, when a person perceives his being not alienated from the existence of other people. This is a new socio-cultural type, combining traits of a social character that were not very compatible in the recent past, realising an ethically and socially safe model of life success.

АНТИРЕЛИГИОЗНАЯ РАБОТА С ЖЕНЩИНАМИ В 1920-Е ГОДЫ И ПРОЦЕССЫ ФЕМИНИЗАЦИИ РУССКОЙ ПРАВОСЛАВНОЙ ЦЕРКВИ (НА СИБИРСКИХ МАТЕРИАЛАХ)

The paper analyzes one of the aspects of the comprehensive post-revolutionary Soviet policy for the “emancipation of women” - anti-religious work among the female population, which was closely intertwined with the general practices of militant atheism and anti-religious work among the population. However, in the author's opinion, working with women was a separate line of efforts of early Soviet cultural traders that required special consideration. The struggle against the church, faith and believers occupied one of the central places in the general policy of modernization of the country according to the Soviet type, and it was the high level of religiosity, mainly of the female population, that seemed to be the biggest obstacle on the way of building a godless New society. If such work as the creation of institutions of motherhood and infancy, women's educational program, the involvement of women in Soviet social life, despite massive resistance, found at least any response among certain segments of the population, then a campaign to seize church values, persecution of clergy, attempts to undermine Orthodox axiological basis for the existence of Russian society was caused only by persistent negativism and tough opposition from the population, primarily women...

The term and nature of the success of modern metropolitan youth

The ways to achieve success are as diverse as human abilities and needs. Nevertheless, based on the previous theoretical and methodological analysis, we believe that among modern youth, generalized culturally, socially and personally determined models of success and failure are formed, which implement certain life programs in our society. The article presents the results of a comparative analysis of two groups of young people who achieved and did not achieve success in life, representing a generational cohort that grew up and formed in a society and state that are radically different from the society and state of the Soviet type. In this regard, answers are given to the questions: what are the real success and failure in modern Russian society; what are their distinctive social and socio-psychological characteristics and role in society. The analysis showed that these groups implement two basic life programs in our society: survival and success, determined by status (education, position, income) and socio-psychological characteristics (methods of selecting and setting goals, the level of their implementation, the type of rationality, attitude to work). Doomed to survival, mismatch of human life with its meaning – lead to a decrease in the threshold of personal and social responsibility, a sense of inferiority, inferiority of one’s personality, low labor activity, forming a model of social maladaptation that hinders the healthy development of the economy and society. The people who represent it, in fact, are slaves not only to circumstances, but also to the logic of everyday life built by them. On the contrary, the life and business success of young Muscovites is based on their status achievements in education and work, as well as on personal characteristics and ways to achieve success: self-confidence, optimism, the ability to set simple and clear goals, and perseverance in their implementation. This is not only an effective model of active adaptation to market conditions based on conscious and responsible choice, but also the construction of social reality based on developed personal potential. Successful Muscovites remain people who are able to relate their own and other people’s interests, when a person perceives their being as alienated from the being of other people. This is a new socio-cultural type that implements an ethical and socially safe model of life success.

Solar energy as a tool of renovating soviet-type multi apartment buildings

The paper analyses the energy and technical possibilities of installing systems that use renewable energy sources (solar energy) to renovate soviet type apartment buildings. The aim of the analysis is to study the possibilities of using solar energy systems to renovate apartment buildings (five-storey, nine-storey and sixteen-storey), which are built in Lithuania, provide detailed conclusions about the energy and engineering aspects of such systems. The authors also intend to determine the optimal technological combinations and solutions that would allow achieving maximum energy benefits (solar collectors for domestic hot water preparation and photovoltaic panels for electricity use). For the research computer simulation tools EnergyPRO and PV*SOL Premium were selected. Actual collected heat and electricity consumption data is also used for the analysis.

A Person in a Totalitarian State. Article One: War and Fear

Just as totalitarianism of the Soviet type determined the nature, consciousness, and features of human existence in peacetime, so, if not to a greater extent, with the beginning of the great Patriotic war, it affected the consciousness and actions of the fighting person. The first post-war reflections on this subject were offered in the military prose of wartime writers — in the novel “Cursed and killed” by Viktor Astafiev, in the stories of Vasil Bykov, as well as in the novel “Life and fate” by the war correspondent Vasily Grossman. Having arisen in the USSR with the beginning of Stalin's rule, totalitarianism quickly found its own fundamental basis — the fear based on the human instinct of self-preservation. It was fear, fueled by often purposeless, but constant and brutal repression, that took hold of Soviet society so much that, along with political and organizational factors, it became one of the causes of the large-scale catastrophic defeats of the beginning of the great Patriotic war. The definition of the Patriotic war not only as a people's war, but also as a war of the totalitarian state, does not agree with the position that Stalin's wartime totalitarianism with its characteristic cruelty was necessary, that its critical analysis is not permissible and should be regarded as anti-Patriotic. The article attempts to show that Soviet totalitarianism had historical roots, and in the war not only did not contribute to, but objectively prevented the victory over fascism. Totalitarianism reduced the human warrior to the level of a means of solving problems, created conditions in which courage and professionalism gave way to fear and cowardice, often gave rise to the desire in the moods of people to please the leader and his inner circle at any cost, in general, was the enemy of a free man and if possible destroyed such a person.