Southern Veracruz Research Articles

Connectivity and larval dispersal pathways of Panulirus argus in the Gulf of Mexico: A numerical study

The connectivity among subpopulations of Panulirus argus in the Gulf of Mexico is evaluated using a particle-tracking model coupled to a realistic hydrodynamic simulation generated with the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model. In 12 potential subpopulations of the Gulf of Mexico, virtual larvae were released daily from March 21 to June 18, 2006–2010. Virtual propagules were tracked for a maximum of 198 days and programmed to undergo vertical migrations and to eventually “die” according to an exponential decay function. The subpopulations that were the most inter-connected and had the highest values of self-settlement were those from the Bay of Campeche (Campeche, Southern Veracruz, Central Veracruz, and Northern Veracruz). This pattern can be explained by the recirculation resulting from the semi-permanent cyclonic gyre in the Bay of Campeche and the back and forth behaviour of the shelf currents at Veracruz. Self-settlement was low at Quintana Roo, Southern Florida, and Northwestern Cuba, because the Loop Current quickly transported the larvae away from those areas. Southern Florida received a considerable number of settlers coming from almost all other subpopulations mainly by means of the Loop Current. Larvae from Yucatan may be transported to subpopulations in the Bay of Campeche by means of both westward Loop Current Eddies and the westward inner-shelf current in the Campeche Bank. The continental shelf of the Bay of Campeche, particularly the islands and cays in the western edge of the Campeche Bank, emerged as both important settlement areas and larval dispersal pathways. A program for the protection of the species in these areas may help increase the population size of P. argus in the Gulf of Mexico, potentially favouring local fisheries.

Cambios en el rendimiento y sus componentes en frijol bajo riego y sequía

El frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) se ve afectado por la sequía, la cual al presentarse durante la etapa reproductiva puede afectar considerablemente sus componentes morfológicos y fisiológicos. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la variabilidad genética en el rendimiento de semilla y sus componentes y fenología de la planta en tiempo térmico (°Cd) en variedades de frijol ‘Flor de Mayo’ y de frijol negro del sur de Veracruz, en riego y sequía bajo una cubierta plástica, en el Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo en primavera-verano 2014. En riego, las variedades FM M38, FM Sol y FM RMC sobresalieron por presentar mayor rendimiento de semilla (RS), biomasa aérea (BMA), índice de cosecha (IC), grados día a floración (GDF) y grados día a madurez fisiológica (GDMF), mientras que en sequía, FM M38 y FM Sol tuvieron altos valores en RS, BMA, GDF y GDMF. La sequía disminuyó el RS (42.1%), BMA (31.7%), IC (13.4%), número de vainas por planta (VP; 36.5%), semillas por planta (SP; 43.9%), semillas por vaina (SV; 10.3%) y peso individual de semilla (PIS; 16.2%) con respecto a riego. El RS de las variedades ‘Flor de Mayo’ y de frijoles negros, en condiciones de riego se relacionó positiva y significativamente con la BMA, el IC y el PIS. Bajo sequía, el RS se relacionó positiva y significativamente con la BMA y con el IC.

Collapse and diverse responses in the Gulf lowlands, Mexico

Between AD 800–1000, the south-central and southern Veracruz lowlands experienced a process of collapse with depopulation that we document with data from systematic archaeological surveys and paleoenvironmental studies. The subsequent record in the Postclassic period indicates varied responses, predominantly settlement reorganization involving retrenchment to fewer settlements or highland immigration. In the latter case, we argue that collapse with depopulation has an important link to migration, providing lightly occupied or vacant lands that afford opportunities for outside migrants. The Spanish conquest and ensuing Colonial period serve as a general comparative analogy for some processes we discuss in prehispanic times for the Gulf lowlands. Unlike the Colonial period, the causes of the prehispanic Gulf collapse are not well studied, but multiple factors likely contributed. Drought and socioeconomic domino effects could explain the extensive spatial scale of collapse that we document. The dramatic, complex collapse in the southern Maya lowlands during a similar interval has dominated Mesoamerican discussions of collapse, but a wider spatial perspective indicates not only a more extensive interregional phenomenon, but also a greater diversity of responses.

TRANSISTHMIAN TIES: EPI-OLMEC AND IZAPAN INTERACTION

AbstractIn 1943, Matthew Stirling (1943:72) once opined, “Izapa appears to be much more closely related to the earth-mound sites of southern Veracruz … than it does with sites in the Maya area.” Since then, scholars have postulated ties of varying strength between Late Formative polities on either side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Ceramic similarities have been noted between southern Chiapas and the Gulf Coast, but discussion of Late Formative transisthmian interaction has focused primarily on sculptural similarities between Izapa and sites of the lower Papaloapan basin, including Tres Zapotes, El Mesón, and Alvarado. Indeed, Michael Coe (1965b:773) suggested that the Izapan art style may have originated on the Gulf Coast rather than on the Pacific slope. In this article, we reexamine Late Formative interaction between Izapa and Epi-Olmec polities with an expanded data set based on recent iconographic studies and archaeological investigations in and around Tres Zapotes.

Mineralogical and magnetic characterization of Olmec ilmenite multi-perforated artifacts and inferences on source provenance

The Olmec culture arose and flourished on Mexico’s southern Gulf Coast between 1800 and 400 BC, and developed extensive trade relationships for procurement of exotic materials from distant regions. The early capital of Mesoamerica’s first civilization, the archaeological site of San Lorenzo, flourished between 1400 and 1000 BC, in the humid tropical coastal plains of southern Veracruz. Previous studies have revealed the regional importation of iron-ore, minerals and stone, such as obsidian, greenstone, and mica, for sculptures, grinding tools and artifacts used in domestic, ceremonial and productive activities. This study focuses on the sourcing of non-local artifacts, made from iron–titanium (ilmenite) oxide mineral and iron-ores, found in large quantities in the archeological excavations, in order to shed light on Early Preclassic trade. We study multi-perforated ilmenite artifacts and iron–titanium oxide ores from potential provenance areas using rock magnetic analyses, macroscopic observations, petrography, scanning electron microscopy and micro-geochemistry. Magnetic analyses include magnetic susceptibility as a function of high temperature, hysteresis, isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition and backfield demagnetization of saturation IRM, and first-order reverse curves. Based on the Curie points and coercivity ranges, we suggest that the geographically unidentified source III-a, proposed earlier, corresponds to the Huitzo anorthosites. The mineralogical and textural relations between ilmenite and granulite host-rocks also suggest for the ilmenite in Olmec samples an origin that is similar to the Huitzo anorthosites. The compositional similarity between large apatite grains in the Huitzo and Olmec samples, and the high MgO content (1.3(6) wt%) of Olmec ilmenite are additional evidence that the provenance of the Olmec ilmenite artifacts is in the Huitzo area, within the northern part of the Oaxaquia Precambrian complex.

WATCHING THE GAME: VIEWERSHIP OF ARCHITECTURAL MESOAMERICAN BALL COURTS

The ballgame, played in an open-air public facility, was an integral institution for most major Mesoamerican centers. Although its social roles likely included political and social mediation among polities or communities, who could witness a game? Our estimates of the numbers of viewers derive from lines of sight toward the playing alley from nearby construction and plazas or other open ground. Focusing on centers in south-central and southern Veracruz, Mexico, we assess court viewership relative to people accommodated in the main plaza to determine the degree to which prime ballgame viewership was restricted. Ratios of prime viewers to plaza capacities for primary and secondary centers show that relative limitations in viewership did not covary consistently with the settlement hierarchy. We show that viewership was markedly curtailed compared to public assembly space in plazas and likely favored the upper echelons of society.

Habitat use by the Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus) during an extreme dry season in an urban lake in Tabasco, Mexico

There are three important manatee areas in Mexico: the coasts of the State of Quintana Roo; the freshwater systems within the lower basin of the Grijalva-Usumacinta rivers, which host the largest manatee population; and the rivers of central and southern Veracruz. The Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus) is a threatened species throughout its range. In the Grijalva-Usumacinta region, two of the current threats to manatees are the effects of extremely dry periods and geographical isolation. The objective of the study was to evaluate the behavior and habitat use of the landlocked manatee population inhabiting Laguna de las Ilusiones, Villahermosa, Tabasco, under fortuitous dry conditions, to conduct an evaluation and implement a monitoring plan for landlocked manatees. In this work, we gathered information on the differential use of the lake, and on whether this use is related to the known habitat characteristics that govern the distribution of manatees. Using VHF tags, we followed the activities of four manatees (three females and one male) to characterize and quantify four behaviors, namely feeding, resting, exploring, and traveling, between April and August 2007. We built Kernel polygons for the 25, 50, 75, and 95 % of the utilization distribution (UD). We modeled the habitat using a binary logistic regression and explored the association between the tagged manatees using Cole’s simple coefficient of association. Manatees were concentrated mainly to the northeast of the lake. The best feeding logistic model included depth, distance to the the shore, tree cover, and wind speed (Table 1), and yielded differences between periods (H = 9.85, P = 0.007, Figure 5). The logistic models fit poorly for resting, exploring, and traveling (Table 1). The resting model included distance to the the shore, tree cover, and company, and yielded differences between periods (H = 6.68, P = 0.035). Traveling included depth, cloud cover, and human activities, and yielded differences between periods (H = 7.55, P = 0.023). Exploration included depth and company, and did not differ between periods (H = 1.55, P = 0.461). We had the opportunity to assess these behaviors under dry conditions, and our findings are not necessarily applicable to the rainy season. The northern portion of the lake is an embayment connected to the central zone by a 50 m-wide shallow channel, which limited the movement of manatees. Higher food availability and stress avoidance might make manatees choose this area. Feeding was better modeled by the habitat characteristics included in the study. Feeding increased slightly in the evenings. Exploring and traveling were the behavior types observed most frequently in manatees; maybe they were moving across food patches or known areas. Manatee social encounters are reported as short-term and sporadic, but in this study manatees were observed in groups during nearly half of the observation time. When the availability of grasses and aquatic plants is low, manatees increase their consumption of other food items like mango fruits. Based on the findings reported here and under dry conditions, habitat enrichment will be helpful for this landlocked manatee population and those in other areas where seasonal contrasts is observed.

Potencial de rendimiento y variabilidad del maíz nativo (Zea mays L.) rojo en suelos ácidos de baja fertilidad en Acayucan, Veracruz

Los maíces nativos (Zea mays L.) pigmentados, han tomado importancia, debido a sus interesantes propiedades nutraceúticas, además de son alternativa de un cultivo con un valor agregado para la industria, por estas razones, se realizó un ensayo con un maíz nativo rojo, en suelos ácidos y de baja fertilidad, del sur de Veracruz, con el objetivo de evaluar su comportamiento en esas condiciones y determinar su potencial productivo. Se utilizó un diseño experimental de bloque completos al azar, con cuatro repeticiones y dos tratamientos, T1 = plantas promedio, representativas de la población y T2= plantas superiores, con características deseables para alto rendimiento. Se utilizó la técnica del Análisis de Varianza y la comparación de medias por Tukey 0.05. Los resultados mostraron una alta variabilidad en crecimiento y rendimiento por planta, Sin embargo los rendimientos por ha fueron satisfactorios, 3,490 y 6,514 kg ha-1, para las plantas promedio y las plantas superiores, respectivamente. Esto pone en evidencia su alto potencial genético, ya que estos rendimientos se obtuvieron, en condiciones adversas de suelos ácidos y de baja fertilidad y la presencia de una severa sequía, atípica, que se presentó en ese ciclo de cultivo.

Expansión ganadera en la Sierra de Santa Marta, Veracruz: el caso de una comunidad zoque-popoluca

El artículo describe el proceso de ganaderización, iniciado a comienzos de la década de 1980, de una pequeña comunidad zoque-popoluca del sur del estado de Veracruz. Los principales mecanismos mediante los cuales se adoptó la actividad ganadera fueron los tratos productivos conocidos como ganado “a medias” y “renta de pastos”. Este proceso de ganaderización tuvo impactos profundos en la transformación de las actividades económicas locales y del paisaje, un proceso regional en el cual tuvieron importancia los grandes procesos nacionales como el impulso a la actividad ganadera como forma de expansión hacia las zonas tropicales del país, así como las políticas de colonización y de reparto agrario.

Mapping the Tres Zapotes Polity

AbstractSeasonal wetlands and exuberant crop growth present challenges to systematic archaeological survey in alluvial settings, particularly in the tropical lowlands. Lidar can reduce the time and cost required to survey such areas by allowing targeting of elevated features not buried under recent alluvium, but demographic interpretation requires estimating post-abandonment alluvial depths. The broad alluvial plain between the Papaloapan delta and the Tuxtla Mountains in southern Veracruz, Mexico, offers a valuable case study, featuring seasonally inundated marshes, lakes, and vast fields of sugar cane, a crop infamously obstructive to lidar mapping. Undertaken to reconstruct demographic and organizational change in the Tres Zapotes polity, this study evaluates the benefits and limitations of lidar for archaeological survey in tropical alluvial settings based on overlap between lidar and systematic pedestrian survey and estimates of alluvial depth obtained by auger testing and underscores the importance of timing for lidar mapping in sugar cane.

Evidence of pre-Columbian settlements in the forest of the Tuxtla Volcanic Field, Veracruz, Mexico

The basaltic Los Tuxtlas Volcanic Field (LTVF) is located at the western margin of the Gulf of Mexico in the State of Veracruz, Mexico. The field is a massif composed of four large volcanic structures and hundreds of scoria cones, lava domes and maars. This area was in the past covered by a dense forest in whose margins flourished several of the ancient cities of importance in central and southern Veracruz. Within the forest no enduring archeological ruins have been found; but the present inhabitants of the area frequently find fragments of ceramics and stone that attest to the presence of what could have been small settlements with a seminomadic regime. Unfortunately the objects found have been removed from their emplacement and are difficult to date. However in the course of our study of the volcanic deposits in the area we found four mudflow deposits containing pre- Columbian pottery objects and shards, as well as charcoal in some of them. Sections of the deposits were observed in detail and sampled for granulometric analysis. The charcoal samples were dated using standard radiocarbon methods (C-14); where charcoal was absent the pottery shards were dated with thermoluminescence (TL) techniques. The samples from these sites yielded ages of 1176±100 years BP (TL), 1385±70 BP years (C-14), 1157±105 years BP (TL), and 2050+245-235 years BP (C-14). Since in the area there is no clayey and silty material suitable for production of pottery; the closest and largest prehispanic cities, Tres Zapotes or Matacapa, are located to the west of the LTVF.

EARLY FORMATIVE ANTHROPOMORPHIC FIGURINES FROM LA JOYA, SOUTHERN VERACRUZ, MEXICO

AbstractThis paper describes Early Formative (3250–2700b.p., uncalibrated) anthropomorphic figurines from the site of La Joya, located in the Tuxtla Mountains of southern Veracruz, Mexico. Although recovered within the region traditionally identified as the “Olmec Heartland,” the La Joya figurine collection diverges in some fundamental ways from other published Early Formative Gulf Olmec collections. While the torsos from La Joya generally reflect the poses, postures, and costumes noted at contemporaneous sites, the La Joya figurine heads display characteristics that rarely conform to the traditional “San Lorenzo” stylistic canons. Rather, the overwhelming majority of figurine heads are similar to the Trapiche figurines from north-central Veracruz. These differences suggest that myriad intra- and interregional connections characterized Early Formative occupation along the southern Gulf lowlands. This variation also raises concerns regarding the suitability of the San Lorenzo material as necessarily “representative” of Early Formative Gulf Olmec lifeways.

Dos especies nuevas de la familia Rubiaceae de la sierra de los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, México

Two new species of Rubiaceae are described from Sierra de los Tuxtlas in southern Veracruz, Mexico: Arachnotrhyx pumae (Guettardeae) and Hoffmannia altipetens (Hamelieae). Arachnotrhyx pumae is similar to A. buddleioides and A. villosa, but it differs by the triangular stipules, 2.0 to 3.0mm long, lax inflorescence, floral bracts of 3.0mm long and 1.0mm width, 10-ribbed fruit and the folded seed. Hoffmannia altipetens is characterized by cystoliths on the leaf veins, inflorescences with 2 to 6 axis per node and white fruits.

Decadal changes and delayed avian species losses due to deforestation in the northern Neotropics

How avifauna respond to the long-term loss and fragmentation of tropical forests is a critical issue in biodiversity management. We use data from over 30 years to gain insights into such changes in the northernmost Neotropical rainforest in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, Mexico. This region has been extensively deforested over the past half-century. The Estación de Biología Tropical Los Tuxtlas, of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), protects a 640 ha tract of lowland forest. It became relatively isolated from other forested tracts between 1975 and 1985, but it retains a corridor of forest to more extensive forests at higher elevations on Volcán San Martín. Most deforestation in this area occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s. Forest birds were sampled on the station and surrounding areas using mist nets during eight non-breeding seasons from 1973 to 2004 (though in some seasons netting extended into the local breeding season for some species). Our data suggested extirpations or declines in 12 species of birds subject to capture in mist nets. Six of the eight species no longer present were captured in 1992–95, but not in 2003–2004. Presence/absence data from netting and observational data suggested that another four low-density species also disappeared since sampling began. This indicates a substantial time lag between the loss of habitat and the apparent extirpation of these species. Delayed species loss and the heterogeneous nature of the species affected will be important factors in tropical forest management and conservation.

Variación genética en poblaciones mexicanas de Swietenia macrophylla King, una especie tropical en expansión geográfica reciente.

Swietenia macrophylla King, es una especie tropical que históricamente ha sido explotada por su alta calidad maderable y actualmente está catalogada como amenazada de extinción. En este estudio se usaron cuatro microsatélites nucleares polimórficos para estimar los niveles de variación y estructura genética de seis poblaciones fragmentadas de S. macrophylla , distribuidas en la Península de Yucatán y sur de Veracruz, México. Se encontró un promedio de variación genética moderado (HE = 0.600) y un nivel de endogamia alto y significativo (FIS = 0.309). El tamaño efectivo (NE) fue heterogéneo entre las poblaciones con un promedio de 19.4. La estructura genética fue baja pero significativa (FST = 0.095), y la tasa de migración alta (M > 3.83). El dendrograma y el análisis de inferencia Bayesiana de la estructuración genética y espacial definieron tres grupos altamente diferenciados, pero no siguen un patrón de aislamiento por distancia (P = 0.486). Los resultados aportan evidencias de que S. macrophylla es susceptible a la pérdida de variación genética por el efecto de la fragmentación del hábitat y apoyan la hipótesis de expansión reciente de las poblaciones por el efecto fundador de algunos genotipos. Finalmente, se sugieren dos probables rutas de dispersión de las poblaciones; la primera a través de la zona del Caribe y la segunda por la vertiente del Golfo de México.

Interpolity Pottery Exchange in the Tuxtla Mountains, Southern Veracruz, Mexico

Neutron activation analysis (NAA) of Coarse Orange jars demonstrates economic exchange among the Classic period political capitals of Totocapan, Matacapan, and Teotepec in the Tuxtla Mountains of southern Veracruz, Mexico. Matacapan, in particular, displays evidence of intensive pottery production at large workshops at the southern margin of the site. Comoapan (Area 411) and Area 199 present configurations of kilns, ceramic densities, and assemblage characteristics that suggest production for exchange beyond the site's boundaries. Both of these production facilities specialized in the production of Coarse Orange jars, a well-made and decorated utilitarian ceramic ware. While these products were traded to sites in the Tepango Valley, different paste recipes of the Coarse Orange type were also produced locally. Of broader concern, I examine the articulation of these regional exchange relationships with the interregional interactions previously documented among Tuxtlas groups and others in central Mexico and the Gulf Coast.

He'm ¢i¢imat, 'La Chichimeca'

The paper presents a transcription and Spanish translation of a folktale in Sierra Popoluca, a Mixe- Zoquean language spoken in Southern Veracruz, in the municipio of Soteapan. Published texts in this language are very scarce, so the text may serve as a resource for future studies. The text was dictated to Salomé Gutiérrez Morales, a trained linguist as well as native speaker, by his close relative Jesús Gutiérrez from the village of Amamaloya. It was subsequently checked for details in transcription and translation by both authors in collaboration with another member of the speech community, Nicasio Gutiérrez Juárez. Opting not to present a morphological analysis, the authors have chosen a very literal translation style which should make it simpler, with some help from a grammar such as Elson (1960), to work out an analysis. As is true of much of the lore of the Popolucas, the contents of the tale is predominately of European extraction, in part rather closely resembling the story of "Hansel and Gretel" from the collection of the German brothers Grimm, and similar stories known also from the oral traditions of Spain, among other European countries. It appears to be rather popular in most parts of southern Veracruz, and perhaps beyond, not only among other indigenous groups, such the Popolucas of Texistepec, but also in the general, rural Spanish-speaking population.The story may be summarized as follows. Two children, a boy and a girl, are left out in the country by their father because they are unwanted by their stepmother. They are adopted by an old, blind, wicked woman, the Tzitzimat (or Chichimeca, in Nahuatl-derived Spanish). However, managing to kill the Tzitzimat, the children make their escape. From the cauldron into which they have pushed her spring two dogs. When, later on, the girl h as plans to marry a giant whom they have met during their wanderings, the dogs help out the boy. After an unsuccessful attempt by the dogs to kill the giant, the girl takes revenge on them by hiding a bone in her brother's pillow to kill him. The boy is brought back to life by the dogs. Later follows an episode where the boy saves the life of a princess, killing a snake which had been a threat to her. A Negro, who falsely claims the honor of having saved the life of the princess, is shown to be a liar when the dogs bring the tongue of the serpent to the king as proof that the boy was the true savior of the king's daughter.

English

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors associated with infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (bovine herpesvirus-1 [BHV-1]) in unvaccinated cattle in southern Veracruz, Mexico. The study was conducted from September 2007 to March 2009. A total of 968 serum samples from 83 herds were analyzed through ELISA test to determine the presence of antibodies against BHV-1. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate the specific seroprevalence with the SPSS software, and the Vassar Stats software was used to calculate the confidence intervals of the specific prevalence and to determine the risk factors. Overall seroprevalence was 64.5%. The dairy cattle showed the highest seroprevalence (72.4%) and the dual-purpose cattle the lowest (61.7%). The 7-year-old cattle showed the highest seroprevalence (91.9%) and the 1-year-old females (11.8%) the lowest.  The cows with ³ 6 calvings showed the highest seroprevalence (82.4%) and the pubertal heifers the lowest (19.4%). Seroprevalence in bulls was 100%. In cows with or without history of abortions, seroprevalence was 76.5 and 72.1%, respectively. The risk factors associated with BHV-1 infection were the dual-purpose cattle, 6-year-old cattle, and all the reproductive stages, except pubertal heifers. In conclusion, BHV-1 infection is present in cattle in southern Veracruz, Mexico.   Key words: IBR, BHV-1, seroprevalence, risk factor, beef cattle, dairy cattle, dual-purposecattle.

Potential Distribution in Mexico ofDiaphorina citri(Hemiptera: Psyllidae) Vector of Huanglongbing Pathogen

Huanglongbing (HLB), the citrus disease associated with the bacteria ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’, is the most important threat of the Mexican citrus industry. Since 2009, this bacterium has been detected in 11 out of 23 citrus producing states of the country, although with a limited distribution in each state. The Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama [Hemiptera: Psyllidae]) is the vector of this bacterium; the insect is distributed in all the citrus growing zones of Mexico. Presently, the lime production zone in the Mexican states of Colima, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, and Sinaloa, near to the Pacific Ocean coast, is the most affected by this disease. One of the main strategies to retard or stop the advance of HLB consists in the regional management of the psyllid populations. In order to contribute to the support of this strategy we analyzed the daily courses of temperature and rainfall all over the country to classify the citrus zones according to the probability of occurrence of favorable conditions for rapid and continuous psyllid reproduction. The results indicate that one of the most important regions of sweet orange production of Mexico, southern Veracruz and the region named “La Huasteca”, where the states of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo converge, represent the zones with the highest risk for an accelerated reproduction of the psyllid. At present these regions remain free of the bacterium and are considered of highest priority for the management of psyllid populations and for preventing the entry and establishment of HLB.

Olmec crayfish farming

The Olmecs of Early and Middle Formative times were responsible for constructing the earliest civilization in Mesoamerica. They influenced later Mesoamerican civilizations in ways that can be seen in iconography, calendrics, epigraphy, town planning, architecture, and loan words, as well as in myriad ways that are not so easily traceable. Major sites, such as San Lorenzo, La Venta, Laguna de los Cerros, Chalcatzingo, and Teopantecuanitlan were actively occupied for varying periods between approximately 1400 and 300 B.C. Although Teopantecuanitlan is located in Guerrero and Chalcatzingo is in Morelos, what is known as the Olmec heartland is focused on the northern part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in southern Veracruz and western Tabasco (Fig. 1). Olmecs are believed by some scholars to have spoken a Mayan language. Others, basing their opinions on language distribution, loan words, and physical types in local populations, think that the Olmecs spoke a Mixe-Zoquean language.