Southern Poland Research Articles

Crustal deformation from GNSS measurement and earthquake mechanism along Pieniny Klippen Belt, Southern Poland

The dynamic geological features of the Pieniny Klippen Belt (PKB) in southern Poland are nowadays a focal point of researchers as it is recognised as an active zone of crustal discontinuity. In the present study, we employed long-term analysis of ground-based global navigation satellite system (GNSS) measurements (from 2004 to 2020) to probe the crustal deformation, strain rates, and rotational rates in the PKB unit and the surrounding region, i.e., Magura Nappe (MN) and Podhale Flysch (PF) units. Measured velocities from GNSS observables are modelled by the auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) method to comprehend the long-term tectonic deformation. Our results showed that the ARIMA-modelled velocity varied from ~ 0.15 to ~ 8.86 mm/yr, indicating about 8.71 mm/yr difference along all units. Such differences suggest that crustal slip along the active thrusts and folds is the major factor causing regional deformation. The strain rates in PKB are also varying from the western to the eastern part. The rotational rates in PKB show a counterclockwise (CCW) pattern similar to the strain rates. These patterns suggesting that the PKB was rotated in the CCW direction with a large angle during the Miocene period. Finally, we analysed the seismicity for a period from 2004 to 2020 by using Bayesian moment tensor inversion and multivariate Bayesian inversion. The Bayesian inversion was applied based on bootstrapping chain analysis to figure out the earthquake mechanism using moment tensor inversion for the mainshock that occurred in Poland on 20 July 2018. The inversion results for the 2018 earthquake resolved a thrusting mechanism with nodal plane-1 having a strike of 346°, dip of 32°, and rake of 92° and a nodal plane-2 with a strike of 163°, dip of 58°, and rake of 89°. Since the seismicity in the Poland region has experienced less significant earthquakes in the last century, it is reasonable to attribute this lower seismic activity to the correspondingly low slip rates discerned through geodetic monitoring efforts.

Where have Ukrainian refugees gone? Identifying potential settlement areas across European regions integrating digital and traditional geographic data

AbstractThe escalation of conflict in Ukraine has triggered the largest refugee crisis in Europe since WWII. As of early April 2024, over 5.9 million people have fled Ukraine. Large‐scale efforts have been made to identify the major receiving countries. However, less is known about the subnational areas within host countries where refugees have migrated. Identifying these areas is key for the appropriate allocation of humanitarian aid. By combining digital Facebook API data and traditional data from Eurostat, this paper aims to identify and characterise potential settlement areas of Ukrainians across the main destination countries in Europe. We identify high concentrations of Ukrainians in urban areas with a preexisting diaspora and tight labour market conditions across southern, northern‐west and central Poland and the city of Prague in the Czech Republic. We also find potential settlements in key urban agglomerations with a moderate diaspora and high levels of unemployment in Spain. Only in Romania, refugees seem to have settled in rural areas which show a moderate diaspora but low levels of unemployment. Potential settlement areas in Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom are spread across the country. Surprisingly, we do not identify potential settlement areas in bordering regions with Ukraine within neighbouring countries, suggesting that refugees may have used them as transit points. Our findings point out that different packages of humanitarian assistance may be needed according to the number of refugees and the characteristics of settlement areas.

Bacterial communities inhabiting the ascomata of the ectomycorrhizal summer truffle (Tuber aestivum)

This paper continues the studies on the role of bacteria in the environment of summer truffle (Tuber aestivum), focusing on ascomata at three sites in the Nida Basin (southern Poland). Bacterial taxa and the number of OTU sequences identified were determined based on analysis of peridium and gleba collected in 2017 and 2018. The aim of the presented work is to learn the structure of bacterial communities associated with the ascomata of the summer truffle T. aestivum forming in specific stands in south Poland and fine roots of surrounding trees. Sanger DNA sequencing, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) were used. NGS sequencing platforms short-read (300 bases) was selected, using a MiSeq Illumina. The Kruskall-Wallis test was used for alpha diversity analysis and the PERMANOVA test for beta diversity. Alpha and beta biodiversity analyzes were performed using various indices (Chao1, Simpson, Shannon, Faith's phylogenetic, observed OTUs, Heip's evenness measure - alpha diversity; UniFrac, Jaccard, Bray–Curtis - beta diversity).The Sanger method identified six bacterial taxa that were dominant in the community: Bacillus (86.7 %), Pseudomonas (51.5 %), Stenotrophomonas (15.5 %), Paenibacillus (7.9 %), Rhizobium (7.3 %), and Chryseobacterium (8.5 %). In contrast, NGS results showed the dominance (at OTUs >10,000) of taxa: Bradyrhizobiaceae, Sphingobacteriaceae, Micrococcaceae, Yersiniaceae, Sphingomonadaceae, Rhizobiaceae, Flavobacteriaceae, and Comamonadaceae. The PERMANOVA test for the Bray-Curtis and Jaccard indices showed dissimilarities between samples from two of the sites with respect to beta diversity. Significant differences were found in the bacterial communities colonizing the ascomata of T. aestivum and in the root communities with T. aestivum ectomycorrhizae the purpose of this study. The results obtained may be helpful in selecting and monitoring sites suitable for the formation of ascomata of T. aestivum.

Mine Wastewater Effect on the Aquatic Diversity and the Ecological Status of the Watercourses in Southern Poland

Coal mining activity contributes to energy security and employment occupation, but is associated with environmental deterioration. Coal combustion leads to GHG emissions, while coal mining results in the generation of saline effluents. These effluents are discharged in inland surface waters, applying significant pressure on their quality, with a negative impact on aquatic life and the economy of a region. This study includes water samples that were analyzed in order to investigate the organic compounds, heavy metals, and other physicochemical parameters. Biological monitoring was done according to the Water Framework Directive methodology. The results from an aquatic area in Southern Poland, which indirectly receives coal mine effluents, indicate elevated salinity with excessive chlorides, sulfates, and sodium ions. The water quality of another non-polluted aquatic area was also assessed to examine the impact of indirect coal mine wastewater discharge on this area. The high salinity levels hinder the use of river water for drinking, agricultural, or industrial purposes. The results obtained show high pressure on the ecological status of streams and rivers that receive mine effluents, and on the density and diversity of aquatic invertebrates. This pressure is clearly visible in the structure of benthic communities and in invertebrate diversity. It also contributes to the appearance of invasive species and increasing water salinity. Limiting discharges of mine water transporting large loads of saline substances would reduce the negative impact on the quality of river waters and biological life.

Black Crust from Historic Buildings as a Natural Indicator of Air Pollution: A Case Study of the Lipowiec Castle, Babice, Southern Poland

The study is focused on the analysis of black crust and soiling on the building materials of the medieval Lipowiec Castle in southern Poland. The castle was constructed using local, partly dolomitic limestones and dolomites, supplemented with other limestones and bricks, during 20th-century renovations of the castle ruins. The crust and soiling components, secondary mineral phases, and particulate matter of anthropogenic origin were analysed using Raman micro-spectroscopy (RS) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS). The crust, mostly composed of gypsum and other sulphate phases, was found to contain carbonaceous matter, spherical Si-Al glass particles, and iron oxides, with admixtures of other elements, including heavy metals, as well as irregularly shaped particles containing various metals. These components reflect the air pollution in the region, related to the combustion of solid fuels in both industrial power plants and local domestic furnaces, Zn-Pb ore mining (operational until 2021), and smelting in the neighbouring industrial centre. Despite its location in a rural area, the castle has been exposed to pollution for an extended period due to its proximity to large industrial centres. Therefore, the crust analysed may serve as an environmental indicator of the nature of the air pollution in the region.

Lifelong greenspace exposure and ADHD in Polish children: Role of physical activity and perceived neighbourhood characteristics

Previous research found a protective association between greenspace exposure and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosis, but previous studies did not investigate mediatory pathways involving child physical activity (PA) and environmental perceptions. Here, we examined the association between lifelong exposure to greenspace and ADHD diagnosis and potential underlying mechanisms (i.e., perceived greenspace, PA, neighbourhood social cohesion, and neighbourhood safety) in children aged 10–13 with and without ADHD. The sample (N = 689) was collected within the NeuroSmog case-control study, where children with (N = 203) and without ADHD (N = 486) were recruited from 18 towns in Southern Poland. ADHD diagnosis was ascertained according to the International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision criteria. Greenspace exposure was defined as the percentage of grass and tree cover in 500 m and 1 km buffers around lifelong residential addresses, respectively. Parents reported information about the availability of domestic garden and data on potential mediators was collected with questionnaires. Structural equation modeling was used to examine hypothesized pathways, and their interplay, linking the three greenspace measures to ADHD. We found that greenspace was indirectly related to ADHD diagnosis: tree cover was positively related to PA, and PA was subsequently negatively related to ADHD diagnosis. Tree cover and garden were both associated with higher levels of perceived greenspace, which in turn related to stronger perceptions of neighbourhood social cohesion. Our findings suggest that exposure to greenspace may lead to lower likelihood of ADHD diagnosis indirectly through PA. These findings highlight how providing children with better access to natural environments for PA may support normal neurodevelopment.

Potentially Harmful Elements (As, Sb, Cd, Pb) in Soil Polluted by Historical Smelting Operation in the Upper Silesian Area (Southern Poland)

This study aimed at determining the concentration and possibility of migration of potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in soils and mining and metallurgical waste in the Silesian-Cracow region. Our research was carried out in selected locations of Ruda Śląska, Świętochłowice, Bytom, and in the Olkusz region (Bukowno) in southern Poland. The concentrations of metals (e.g., Ag, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Pb, Sr, Zn), metalloids (As, Sb), and sulphur were determined in 33 soil samples (with a depth range of 0.0–0.3 m) and 12 slag samples. These studies show an increased concentration of metals, metalloids, and sulphur, exceeding the level of regional geochemical background. The research results indicate that the degree of the chemical transformation of soils in the analysed regions of Ruda Śląska, Bytom, and Bukowno is advanced. This highlights the high concentrations of most metals, i.e., arsenic, antimony, and sulphur, in the surface layer of soils (topsoil) due to historic Zn-Pb ore mining and Zn and Fe metallurgy. The presence of both primary and secondary metal sulphides, sulphates, carbonates, oxides/hydroxides, silicates, and aluminosilicates was found in the mineral composition of soils and slags.

Sex-specific associations between the environmental exposures and low-grade inflammation and increased blood pressure in young, healthy subjects

Long-term exposures to environmental factors including airborne as well as noise pollutants, are associated with cardiovascular risk. However, the influence of environmental pollution on the young population is controversial. Accordingly, we aimed to investigate the relationships between long-term exposures to different environmental factors and major cardiovascular and inflammatory parameters and biomarkers in young, healthy subjects. Representative sample of permanent residents of two cities differing in air and noise pollution levels, aged 15–21 years, were recruited. Krakow and Lublin, both located in southern Poland, were chosen in relation to their similarities in demographic and geopolitical characteristics, but differences in air pollution (higher in Krakow) and noise parameters (higher in Lublin). A total of 576 subjects were studied: 292 in Krakow and 284 in Lublin. All subjects underwent health questionnaire, blood pressure measurements and biomarker determinations. Inflammatory biomarkers, such as CRP, hs-CRP, fibrinogen as well as homocysteine were all significantly higher in subjects living in Krakow as opposed to subjects living in Lublin (for hsCRP: 0.52 (0.32–0.98) mg/l vs. 0.35 (0.22–0.67) mg/l; p < 0.001). Increased inflammatory biomarker levels were observed in Krakow in both male and female young adults. Interestingly, significant differences were observed in blood pressure between male and female subjects. Males from Krakow had significantly higher mean systolic blood pressure (127.7 ± 10.4 mm/Hg vs. 122.4 ± 13.0 mm/Hg; p = 0.001), pulse pressure (58.7 ± 8.9 mm/Hg vs. 51.4 ± 12.3 mm/Hg; p < 0.001) and lower heart rate (p < 0.001) as compared to males living in Lublin. This was not observed in young adult females. Long-term exposure to environmental factors related to the place of residence can significantly influence inflammatory and cardiovascular parameters, even in young individuals. Interestingly, among otherwise healthy young adults, blood pressure differences exhibited significant variations based on biological sex.

Enzymatic Activity of Soil on the Occurrence of the Endangered Beetle Cheilotoma musciformis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Xerothermic Grasslands.

This work attempts to find the reasons for the rather limited range of occurrence of Cheilotoma musciformis in Poland, based on soil properties, which affects both the plant cover and the entomofauna. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of soil enzyme activity on the occurrence of Ch. musciformis in xerothermic grasslands in Southern Poland. The sites inhabited by the beetle were most often extensively grazed by farm animals or had recently been cleared of bushes. The control plots were in wasteland. The soils of most sites with Ch. musciformis were characterized by significantly higher activity of the tested enzymes and higher content of total organic carbon and total nitrogen, as well as lower pHKCl compared to the control sites. The higher enzymatic activity of soils in sites with the beetle than in the control sites may indicate the dependence of the occurrence of this beetle on the presence of patches of extensively grazed xerothermic grasslands. Grazing influences the behavior of preferred host plant species. Therefore, when planning active protection of xerothermic grasslands inhabited by Ch. musciformis, changes in the biochemical properties of the soil and vegetation structure should be taken into account.

Environmental perturbations around the Badenian/Sarmatian (Middle Miocene) boundary in the Central Paratethys: Micropalaeontological and organic geochemical records

The boundary between the two regional Middle Miocene stages (the Badenian and Sarmatian) of the Central Paratethys is associated with the largest faunal turnover event in the Paratethys realm. A recent study performed in the northern Polish Carpathian Foredeep revealed that the Badenian/Sarmatian boundary is coeval with a major change in benthic and planktonic foraminiferal assemblages that occurs a few metres below the beginning of the Anomalinoides dividens Interval Zone in our section. The lowermost Sarmatian biozone is the Elphidium angulatum Partial Range Zone, and its lower boundary corresponds to the disappearance of almost all Badenian foraminiferal species. Detailed analysis of a fully cored borehole in southern Poland using micropalaeontological tools (foraminifera and palynology) and a range of (inorganic and organic) geochemical methods indicated that during the late Badenian and almost the entire profile of Anomalinoides dividens Zone, oxic or suboxic sedimentary conditions prevailed. In the Elphidium angulatum Zone and the lowest part of the subsequent Anomalinoides dividens Zone, suboxic and anoxic conditions dominated the sea bottom. This research indicated that the sudden disappearance of marine Badenian species in the Polish Carpathian Foredeep was caused by a rapid change in basin chemistry although not necessarily it implies open marine conditions changing to brackish water environments.

New data on the occurrence of echinoderms in the Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic) of Upper Silesia

In the Sadowa Góra quarry in Jaworzno, southern Poland, the Muschelkalk deposits are exposed (Lower and Upper Gogolin Beds). The occurrence of echinoderms seems to be particularly interesting. The isolated ossicles of asteroids were found already in the 1st Wellenkalk of the Lower Gogolin Beds (Aegean), which is one of the oldest post-Paleozoic occurrence in the world. Until recently, it was believed that the first echinoids appeared in the Germanic Basin during the Bithynian (above the Conglomeratic Horizon of the Upper Gogolin Beds). Currently, they have been found, similarly to the remains of asteroids, already in the 1st Wellenkalk. Attention was also drawn to the fact that the stratigraphically important crinoid species Holocrinus dubius may have appeared in Upper Silesia earlier than previously thought.

Drought Impact on Eco-Physiological Responses and Growth Performance of Healthy and Declining Pinus sylvestris L. Trees Growing in a Dry Area of Southern Poland

In recent years, several drought events hit Poland, affecting its forests. In Opole, Poland, tons of Pinus sylvestris L. deadwood is removed every year due to drought. Understanding the physiological mechanisms underlying tree vulnerability to drought, and tree responses, is important to develop forest management strategies to face the ongoing climate change. This research provides comprehensive local-scale analyses of the sensitivity of healthy and declining trees to drought. We used dendrochronology and stable isotope analysis to compare five healthy and five declining trees. The analysis focused particularly on comparisons of basal area increment (BAI), δ13C, and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE), as well as tree resistance, resilience, and recovery in response to drought events and sensitivity to selected meteorological parameters. We observed a significant reduction in BAI values in declining trees after 2000. Fifteen years later, the reduction was also visible in the iWUE values of these trees. Despite similar δ13C chronology patterns, declining trees showed higher δ13C correlations with meteorological parameters. We have shown that dendrochronology enables early detection of poor forest health conditions. Differences in iWUE chronologies occurring in recent years suggest that trees of both groups have chosen different adaptive strategies to cope with drought stress.

Molecular epidemiology and clinical significance of carbapenemase genes in carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii isolates in southern Poland.

A complex interplay between Acinetobacter spp., patients, and the environment has made it increasingly difficult to optimally treat patients infected with Acinetobacter spp., mainly due to rising antimicrobial resistance and challenges with surveillance. This study evaluated carbapenem‑resistant A. baumannii (CRAB) isolates to determine their resistance profiles and the presence of specific β‑lactamases to inform CRAB surveillance upon hospital admission and regional empiric antibiotic therapies. The study was conducted at 4 hospitals in southern Poland between June and December 2022. Only health care-associated infections caused by A. baumannii were considered. A total of 82 CRAB isolates were included in the analysis. Species identification was performed by matrix‑assisted laser desorption / ionization time‑of‑flight mass spectrometry, antimicrobial susceptibility was determined phenotypically, and polymerase chain reactions were carried out to identify the resistance genes. Depending on the hospital, the incidence of CRAB infections varied from 428.6 to 759.5 per 10 000 admissions in intensive care units (ICUs), and from 0.3 to 21 per 10 000 admissions in non‑ICUs. CRAB antibiotic susceptibility was the highest for cefiderocol (100%), colistin (96%), tigecycline (77%), gentamicin (51%), and ampicillin / sulbactam (36%). The most prevalent blaOXA genes were blaOXA‑66‑1 (95%) and blaOXA‑40 (71%), and additionally the extended‑spectrum β‑lactamase gene blaTEM‑1 (41%). An unexpectedly high incidence of CRAB infections occurred in Polish hospitals. There is a need for effective CRAB prevention and control that includes effective hospital screening, national surveillance, and improved treatment options.

A Unique Object from the 10th-Century Transylvanian Basin: The Mount Ornamented Sabretache of Grave No. 25 in Cluj-Napoca-Plugarilor Street

To the southeast of the Roman town of Napoca, 26 graves from the 10th century were discovered during the excavation of a Roman-period cemetery between 1985 and 1986. In the southern, slanted part of the funerary site, the individual of grave 25, the richest and most varied depositions and the only horse burial in the cemetery, was excavated. The most important object of the tomb’s very varied grave goods material is clearly the leather sabretache, which was ornamented with different types and sizes of mounts by the masters/leather craftsmen of the 10th century. Based on the available data, the sabretache, decorated with mounts, was not placed horizontally in the grave, but obliquely, at an angle of 45 degrees on the leg of the deceased person. Based on the structural and typological analysis of the mounts, the Cluj-Napoca mount ornamented sabretache shows a connection with the sabretaches of the Upper Tisza region and southern Poland and we can state that we do not know an identical analogy of the mounts on the sabretache from Cluj, so up to the present day, it is a unique piece. The traces of wear and repairs on the mounts of the Cluj-Napoca sabretache clearly indicate its long-term use. The signs of wear on the central mount of the sabretache and the biological age of the skeleton (60–65 years) indicate not only the lengthy use of the sabretache, but taking into account the above observations, they also confirm their placement in the grave in the second half of the 10th century. Based on the 14C samples’ results taken from the 60–65-year-old man and the horse sacrificed (4–5 years old), as well as the typochronological analysis of the finds, and the radiocarbon samples taken from the other six graves in the cemetery, grave 25 was most likely dug in the second half of the 10th century, approximately in the years 960–990. This also means that the life course of the senilis man, based on the available scientific researches, had begun around the years 910–930 and, which is at least as important, he was probably born in the vicinity of Cluj-Napoca.

Evidence for Slavic lead mining and trade: Early Rus’ lead seals from Czermno and Gródek on the Polish Rus’ border

Both in Byzantium and by the Kievan Rus’, lead seals were used to signify ownership. Their stamped inscriptions and symbols are analogous to coinage and are a rich source of information on interaction and commerce. The Rus’ used them in the 11th-13th century CE as regular seals issued by rulers and church officials but also for sealing a specified number of furs exported from East European forests (creating ‘approved’ pelt bundles; so-called Drohiczyn seals). The latter are concentrated at Kievan Rus’-Polish border settlements, signalling cross-border exchange. Fourteen seals were analysed (Pb-isotope / trace elements) to investigate lead source and the direction of trade. The results of eleven suggest a connection to the nearby Olkusz lead mines in southern Poland (west of Cracow). This new evidence for lead transport from southern Poland to the Kievan Rus’ is of great significance for further research into reconstructing trade routes connecting Latin and Orthodox (Rus’) Europe. It show that trade routes ran not only through Scandinavia via Novgorod and from the Black Sea via Kiev but also laterally, linking Poland and Rus’.

Biodiversity assessment of segetal flora, earthworms and terrestrial invertebrates in various agricultural production systems and crops

The functioning of societies depends on a number of goods and services provided by the natural environment. Knowledge about the benefits that humans derive from it is an important issue in the era of current environmental and climate changes. Agricultural systems and management methods (e.g. tillage, weed and pest control, fertilization, field consolidation, crop specialization and monoculture) are important for biodiversity, the presence of which is of great importance for people and the environment. The aim of this study was to assess bioenvironmental indicators such as weed flora, earthworms and terrestrial invertebrates biomass, in selected crops in an organic, integrated and conventional farming systems in southern Poland. The results showed the highest biodiversity weeds, earthworms, and terrestrial invertebrates in crops grown in the organic system in comparison to the conventional or sustainable ones, where chemical herbicides were applied. Species diversity of weeds was, on average, twice as high in the organic system (21 species) compared to the integrated and conventional systems (10–11 species). In the organic system, the highest number of weeds (average 71 pcs m–2) accompanied spring wheat and the lowest number of weeds was observed in legume-grass mixture in the first year of use (average 28 pcs m–2). The highest biomass of earthworms in the soil was estimated under winter wheat and legume-grass mixtures. This indicator was half as much in the soil under plants grown in integrated and conventional systems. Terrestrial invertebrates were also most abundant in crops grown in the organic system, indicating that this agricultural production system is conducive to maintaining high biodiversity in agroecosystems. For winter wheat cultivated in the conventional and integrated systems, the invertebrate richness index was 2.5–3 times lower than in the organic system.

A Middle Palaeolithic incised bear bone from the Dziadowa Skała Cave, Poland: the oldest marked object north of the Carpathian Mountains

A fragment of an ursid radius with seventeen incisions (one of them incomplete) was excavated in the 1950s in the Dziadowa Skała Cave in the Częstochowa Upland in southern Poland from a deposit with faunal remains from the Eemian (ca 130–115 kyr). This object has been cited as the earliest evidence of Neanderthal cognitive abilities in the region, but it has been never studied in detail. The artefact has now been re-examined using microscopy and X-ray computed tomography. For this study we revised the determination of the bone and studied the morphology and metric parameters of the incisions (length, width, depth and opening angle). We also used experiments, statistical analysis and an analysis of the incisions' topography to establish the techniques behind their manufacture. The obtained results show that the bone was marked using a retouched stone tool, and that the incisions were produced during a single episode by a right-handed individual using repeated unidirectional movements of the tools’ cutting edge. The incisions are evidently an effect of a deliberate action, not a side-effect of some practical activity. The bear radius from Dziadowa Skała is thus yet another piece of evidence for the emergence of symbolic culture, evolved by hominins in Africa and Eurasia, and represents the oldest example of marked bone north of the Carpathian Mountains.

How does ski infrastructure change soil erosion processes on hillslope?

AbstractSki tourism's popularity is driving a rise in the number of ski resorts. This study aims to present the impact of ski infrastructure on soil erosion processes in the example from a small catchment in the Gubałowskie Foothills in southern Poland, where landscape changes before (since 1879) and after the construction of the ski station (2007) are presented. The analyses of changes in flow accumulation, slope morphometry, and drainage ditches were conducted in the test area. Quantitative analyses were performed using repeated DEMs derived from aerial LiDAR survey and detailed geodetic measurements, complemented by geomorphological mapping done in the field. The study has revealed that the ski infrastructure has not only directly transformed the hillslope by flattening and constructing escarpments (up to 3 m high) but has also created alternating patterns of erosion and accumulation. In the test area, the drainage ditch was poorly designed. It was filled with materials (0.1–0.5 m), and two new outlets formed. The escarpment of the analyzed ski run has been diminished by 0.5 m. An alluvial fan (0.1–0.22 m thick) has developed on the flattened surface below the escarpment with drainage ditch outlets. This fan is eroded by subsurface flow that creates a piping system. The gully below the alluvial fan has retreated upslope, accelerated by subsurface erosion. This study enables the presentation of hillslope adjustments and processes in response to the new conditions caused by ski infrastructure. Such results may support more effective land management in regions changed by ski infrastructure.

Trends of Major Ions in a Carpathian River in Poland: The Influence of Flow and Damming

Flow influences major ion concentrations in river water, therefore, it seems that it can differentiate ion concentrations in mountain rivers in different hydrological years. This study aimed to determine the impact of flow on the major ion concentrations in the Carpathian Raba River above and below the Dobczyce Reservoir (southern Poland) in hydrologically dry (HD), average (HA), and wet (HW) years (period April–October) in the period 2010–2017. In the river above the reservoir, the flow negatively affected the concentrations of most major ions under all hydrological conditions, which resulted in their significant differences between (1) the studied hydrological years (except for SO42−)–higher in the HD years than in the HA or HW years–and (2) seasons–higher Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl−, and SO42− concentrations (mainly point sources of pollution) were identified in summer or autumn than in spring in the HD and HA years. The dam reservoir strongly modified the ion concentrations in the downstream river. It significantly decreased all major ion concentrations only in the HD years, when they were high in the upstream river, and Ca2+, Mg2+, or HCO3− concentrations in all the studied hydrological years. There, the ion concentrations were not related to the flow that resulted in their insignificant differences between the studied hydrological years (with the exception of HCO3−, Ca2+, and Cl−) and different seasonal changes to those in the river above the dam. The obtained results allow for predicting conditions favouring an increase in the salinity of mountain river waters; therefore, they are important for appropriate management and water use opportunities.

Two new species of Achaeta (Enchytraeidae, Oligochaeta) from afforested post-mining and post-fire sites in Poland.

Achaeta (Enchytraeidae, Oligochaeta, Clitellata) is a genus of small, soil-dwelling annelids, peculiar by the absence of chaetae in all species. Here two new species of this genus are described from afforestation sites in southern Poland. Descriptions are based on the investigation of living and preserved material. The species are also characterized at the DNA level, using fragments of the COI and ITS genes, sequenced from the holotypes and paratypes. The worms are not longer than 4-6 mm, with about 30 to 35 segments, and with medium-large male and female reproductive organs. Achaeta florens sp. nov., discovered at a post-mining site, has four segmental pyriform glands, an oesophageal appendage restricted to segment V, a clitellum with distinct transverse rows and dorsal and ventral interruption, and spermathecae with blossom-like fields of vesicular gland cell apices around the ventrally located ectal pores. The species is without peculiar characters but the combination of characters is diagnostic. Its morphological distinction from A. nurmineni, described from the Indian subcontinent, is difficult due to the poor description of that species; A. nurmineni is therefore considered a species inquirenda. Achaeta gemmata sp. nov., discovered in high abundance at a post-fire site, is without pyriform glands but with conspicuous, gem-like lateral papillae in all preclitellar segments. The papillae are modified and enlarged epidermal gland cells that protrude into the body cavity. The species is without oesophageal appendage and has a dorsally closed clitellum and lateral spermathecal pores. It is superficially similar to Achaeta camerani, found at the same site, but can be distinguished based on sexual and non-sexual characters. A comparison of COI sequences showed 100% identity with a specimen from Sweden, erroneously identified as A. cf. brevivasa. Genetic distance between the two new species based on COI differences is 20%, distances to other species of Achaeta with publicly available COI sequences range from 16% to 26%.