Saponin Solution Research Articles

Extraction and Fermentation‐Based Purification of Saponins from Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.

AbstractIn the present study, the extraction and purification of saponins from Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. were examined for effective utilization of the saponin resource. Saponins were extracted from S. mukorossi Gaertn. using water. The conditions of the water extraction process, including extraction temperature, extraction time, number of times of extraction, and solvent‐material ratio were optimized. The yield of total Sapindus saponins (TSS) from the pericarp was 33.41 % and its purity in the extract was 45.71 %. The saponin solution was further concentrated to 1/6–1/7 of its original volume, and dried yeast BV818 that adapted to the concentrated Sapindus saponins solution (SW) was screened. The activation conditions, inoculum amount, fermentation temperature, and fermentation period were optimized. By using the dried yeast under optimized conditions, the purity was increased to 75.50 %. The yield of the byproduct ethanol was 5.33 % (w/v), while the content of TSS in the final product decreased from 18.29 to 15.30 % (w/v). These results could contribute to the development of industrial‐scale production of Sapindus saponins.

The Adhesion and Antimicrobial Properties of Nano Silver/Chitosan Composite Membrane in Orthogonal Research

Research the nanosilver and other composite materials with the chitosan in the best composition with orthogonal test method. According to the best use concentration of nanosilver and composite materials carry out the orthogonal experiment. By using the ultrasonic method test the adhesion strength between chitosan membrane and the breeding net through calculating the loss of the membrane. With bacteriostatic circle method to determine the bacteriostatic effect of membrane. The results show that the main factors influence the adhesion of membrane and the effectiveness of bacteriostatic is adhesives and nanosilver. The orthogonal experiment results show that the optimum conditions of film forming as follows: the adhesion agent A3% , adhesion reagent B3% ,nanosilver solution 2% nanoantibacterial powder 3% ,tea saponin solution 60 mg/L. Under these conditions, the loss of the membranewas14.6%, the inhibition zone was 2.35cm. Orthogonal test was applied to the ratio of composite materials can get the best composite columns. Creating a better performance of target product and has a promising prospect for practical application.

Soy isoflavone affects the autonomic nervous system in a tissue-specific manner in anesthetized rats

We examined and compared the effects of taste stimulation by soy saponin as well as soy isoflavone and intragastric (IG) injection of both on the autonomic nerve activities and feeding behavior in rats. We found that taste stimulation by soy saponin or soy isoflavone-rich solution (SIRS) did not affect the activity of the sympathetic nerve supplying the adrenal gland in urethane-anesthetized rats; however, IG injection of SIRS, but not soy saponin, stimulated the adrenal sympathetic nerve activity (ASNA) in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, IG injection of SIRS significantly suppressed the activity of the vagus nerve innervating the stomach, whereas sympathetic nerve outflows to brown or white adipose tissue were not affected by IG injection of SIRS. To test the involvement of the afferent autonomic nerve in the abdominal organs for regulation of the efferent ASNA by SIRS, we examined the response of the adrenal sympathetic innervation to SIRS injection in rats with ablated afferent vagus or afferent sympathetic nerves. The activating effect of SIRS on the ASNA was inhibited in sympathectomized rats but not in vagotomized rats. Thus, our data suggest that soy isoflavone might affect tissue-specific autonomic nerves through the afferent sympathetic nerve pathway.

Characterization and antimicrobial activity of gold and silver nanoparticles synthesized using saponin isolated from Trianthema decandra L.

Synthetic methods based on naturally occurring biomaterials provide an alternative, environmental-friendly means of obtaining nanoparticles. We describe, one step green synthesis of gold (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using a benign solvent, i.e., water and a surfactant isolated from Trianthema decandra, i.e., saponin without any special reducing or capping agents. On treatment of aqueous solutions containing chloroauric acid or silver nitrate with a solution of saponin isolated from T. decandra, stable gold or silver nanoparticles were rapidly formed. The reduction of gold and silver ions during the reaction was analyzed by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy. Field emission-scanning electron microscopy showed formation of gold nanoparticles in various shapes, including spherical, cubical and hexagonal, while silver nanoparticles were spherical. The size of the gold nanoparticles was 37.7–79.9nm and that of the silver nanoparticles was 17.9–59.6nm. Energy dispersive X-ray and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of metallic gold and metallic silver in the respective nanoparticles. The antimicrobial activity of the synthesized nanoparticles was analyzed using the Kirby–Bauer method, indicated varied susceptibility of microorganisms to the gold and silver nanoparticles.

Possible relationship between Plasmodium falciparum ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen (RESA) and host cell resistance to destruction by chemicals

Repeated incubation of Plasmodium falciparum culture in 0.015% saponin solution for a total of 35 min destroys most of the uninfected cells, leaving only the ring-infected erythrocytes (RIEs). Parasites concentrated by this method can subsequently complete the asexual cycle and infect other erythrocytes. It is possible that resistance to saponin is mediated by one or more of the numerous parasite proteins present in the host erythrocyte membrane. We have found that schizonts are as susceptible as uninfected erythrocytes to saponin, indicating that the protective protein is parasite stage specific. Studies with cultured parasites have shown that ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen (RESA) strengthens host erythrocyte membrane and protects against destruction. Therefore, we hypothesize that RESA could be involved in resistance to saponin. Here, we have carried out PCR test on RESA gene, using three different primers. One of them showed that P. falciparum isolates collected directly from infected humans and cultured only for a few days, or not at all, have amplicon sizes ranging from 372 to 510 bp. However, the amplicon size changed to 873 bp when in vitro growth was continued for one or more weeks. This genetic transformation precedes acquisition of the ability to confer saponin resistance to RIEs.

Enhanced soil washing of phenanthrene by a plant-derived natural biosurfactant, Sapindus saponin

Biosurfactants have great advantages for using in environmental remediation as their environmental friendly nature. In this study, a plant-derived natural biosurfactant of Sapindus saponin was extracted from the fruit pericarps of Sapindus mukorossi (Chinese soapberry), and the properties of this biosurfactant in enhancing washing for phenanthrene contaminated soil were investigated and compared with those of Tween 80, a representative synthetic nonionic surfactant. Sapindus saponin showed a linear solubilization enhancement for phenanthrene and the weight solubilization ratio was 0.0312 and about one third of that of Tween 80. However, Sapindus saponin can effectively remove phenanthrene from contaminated soil with a maximum removal percentage of about 87.4%, which was only slightly less than that of Tween 80 (about 91.5%) because the sorption of Sapindus saponin onto soil was much less than that of Tween 80. The solubilization enhancement of Sapindus saponin for phenanthrne and the sorption of Sapindus saponin onto soil both decreased with increasing solution pH, the net results of which resulted in that the maximum washing efficiency of Sapindus saponin for phenanthrene contaminated soil was obtained at pH around 6.0. Sapindus saponin solutions can be recovered for their reusage after soil washing by using organo-bentonite to remove phenanthrene from the washed surfactant solutions with an appropriate dosage. Sapindus saponin showed a favorable performance in enhancing soil washing and should have the potential application in soil washing technology for the remediation of organic contaminated soils and groundwater.

Enhanced desorption of PCB and trace metal elements (Pb and Cu) from contaminated soils by saponin and EDDS mixed solution

This study investigated the simultaneous desorption of trace metal elements and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) from mixed contaminated soil with a novel combination of biosurfactant saponin and biodegradable chelant S,S-ethylenediaminedisuccinic acid (EDDS). Results showed significant promotion and synergy on Pb, Cu and PCB desorption with the mixed solution of saponin and EDDS. The maximal desorption of Pb, Cu and PCB were achieved 99.8%, 85.7% and 45.7%, respectively, by addition of 10 mM EDDS and 3000 mg L−1 saponin. The marked interaction between EDDS and saponin contributed to the synergy performance. The sorption of EDDS and saponin on soil was inhibited by each other. EDDS could enhance the complexation of metals with the saponin micelles and the solubilization capabilities of saponin micelles for PCB. Our study suggests the combination of saponin and EDDS would be a promising alternative for remediation of co-contaminated soils caused by hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs) and metals.

1P1-U06 マイクロ流路内の濃度勾配を利用したバイオアクチュエータ制御技術の開発(ナノ・マイクロ流体システム)

We develop control technology of bioactuators using a gradient generating microfluidic device. We used a stalk of Vorticella as a linear actuator, length of which is proportional to Ca^<2+> concentration. Extension and contraction of Vorticella can be controlled by changing the Ca^<2+> concentration. We fabricated a gradient-generating microfluidic device. The device was characterized with fluorescent dyes. Linear concentration gradient was generated. Vorticella was cultured in the channel. The cells were treated with saponin solution for permeabilization of cell membrane. Calcium gradient was generated in the channel. The stalks contracted in response to the generated concentration.

Mitochondrially targeted ceramides preferentially promote autophagy, retard cell growth, and induce apoptosis

C(6)-pyridinium (D-erythro-2-N-[6'-(1''-pyridinium)-hexanoyl]sphingosine bromide [LCL29]) is a cationic mitochondrion-targeting ceramide analog that promotes mitochondrial permeabilization and cancer cell death. In this study, we compared the biological effects of that compound with those of D-erythro-C(6)-ceramide, its non-mitochondrion-targeting analog. In MCF7 cells it was found that C(6)-pyridinium ceramide preferentially promoted autophagosome formation and retarded cell growth more extensively than its uncharged analog. This preferential inhibition of cell growth was also observed in breast epithelial cells and other breast cancer cells. In addition, this compound could promote Bax translocation to mitochondria. This redistribution of Bax in MCF7 cells could be blocked by the pan-caspase inhibitor zVAD-fmk but via a Bid-independent signaling pathway. Moreover, C(6)-pyridinium ceramide-induced translocation of Bax to mitochondria led to mitochondrial permeabilization and cell death. Overall, we show that mitochondrial targeting of C(6)-pyridinium ceramide significantly enhances cellular response to this compound.

Monitoring the Uptake of Glycosphingolipids In Plasmodium falciparum-Infected Erythrocytes Using Both Fluorescence Microscopy and Capillary Electrophoresis with Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection

The metabolism of glycosphingolipids by the malaria-causing parasite Plasmodium falciparum plays an important role in the progression of the disease. We report a new and highly sensitive method to monitor the uptake of glycosphingolipids in infected red blood cells (iRBCs). A tetramethylrhodamine-labeled glycosphingolipid (GM1-TMR) was used as a substrate. Uptake was demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy. The iRBCs were lysed with a 15% solution of saponin and washed with phosphate buffered saline to release intact parasites. The parasites were further lysed and the resulting homogenates were analyzed by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection. The lysate from erythrocytes infected at 1% parasitemia generated a signal 20 standard deviations larger than uninfected erythrocytes, which suggests that relatively low infection levels can be studied with this technique.

Liquid Membrane Permeation of Nitrogen Heterocyclic Compounds Contained in Model Coal Tar Fraction

We investigated the separation of nitrogen heterocyclic compound (NHC) contained in a model coal tar fraction comprising four kinds of NHC [indole (In), quinoline (Q), iso-quinoline (iQ), quinaldine (Qu)], three kinds of bicyclic aromatic compound (BAC) [1-methylnaphthalene (1MN), 2-methylnaphthalene (2MN), dimethylnaphthalene (DMN) mixture with ten structural isomers (DMNs; regarded as one component)], biphenyl (Bp) and phenyl ether (Pe) by liquid membrane permeation (LMP). A batch-stirred tank was used as the permeation unit. An aqueous solution of saponin and n-hexane were used as the liquid membrane and the outer oil phase, respectively. Yield and selectivity of individual NHC was much larger than that of BAC, Bp and Pe. Increasing the initial mass fraction of the saponin to the membrane solution () and the initial volume fraction of O/W emulsion to total liquid in a stirred tank () resulted in deteriorating the yield of individual NHC, but increasing the stirring speed (N) resulted in improving the yield of each NHC. With increasing , the selectivity of each NHC based on DMNs increased. Increasing and N resulted in decreasing the selectivity of individual NHC based on DMNs. At an experimental condition fixed, the sequence of the yield and selectivity in reference to DMNs for each NHC was Q > Qu = iQ > In. Furthermore, we compared LPM method with methanol extraction method in view of the separation efficiency (yield, selectivity) of NHC.

Preparation of O/W ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion and its amplified immune response

To prepare an O/W ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion and investigate its amplified immune response. The formulation of ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion was optimized via the range of nanoemulsion zone in phase diagrams and the solubility of ginseng saponins. Its physicochemical properties were investigated, including morphology, particle size distribution, pH, viscosity and stability. Ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion as adjuvant was co-administrated with a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in mice. Two weeks after the boosting, the serum levels of OVA-specific antibody and its isotypes were determined. The optimized ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion formulation consisted of ginseng saponins, IPM, Cremophor RH 40, glycerol and water (with the weight ratio of 2 : 4 : 17.8 : 17.8 : 58.4), which was a light yellow fluid. The shape of droplets was spherical under transmission electron microscopy with an average diameter of 72.20 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.052. The viscosity and pH value of it were 4.20 s and 6.02, respectively. And it showed good stability. When co-administered with OVA, no obvious side effects were observed in the mice immunized with ginseng saponin-based nanoemulsion. The serum levels of IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a antibody in the group of ginseng saponin-based nanoemulsion immunized mice was significantly increased compared to the groups of OVA and the saline solution of ginseng saponin. Compared with the adjuvant aluminium hydroxide, the serum levels of IgG and IgG1 antibodys in the groups of ginseng saponins-based nanoemulsion had no significant difference, but the level of IgG2a was obviously higher. ginseng saponin-based nanoemulsion could amplify the Th1 and Th2 immune responses, and can be used as the vaccine adjuvant.

Use of a Saponin Based Molluscicide to Control Pomacea canaliculata Snails in Southern Brazil

Pomacea canaliculata snails pose a severe problem to direct seeded rice cultivated in Southern Brazil. Control of this snail is nowadays performed with toxic chemicals such as copper sulfate and fungicides such as fentin. A novel natural molluscicide based on alkali modified quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) saponins was tested under laboratory conditions. Snails were collected in rice fields close to Porto Alegre (State of Rio Grande do Sul) and in Brusque (State of Santa Catarina, 400 km north of Porto Alegre). In Santa Catarina the product was very effective, while in Porto Alegre it had no effect. This unexpected behavior was probably due to the respiratory habits of the snails under different contents of dissolved oxygen in the water. Near Porto Alegre the water used in rice fields is heavily polluted, with dissolved oxygen levels of 1-2 ppm, and the snails rely primarily on their siphon and lungs to breathe. Since saponin control is probably due to an interaction between saponins with the sterols present in the cell walls in the gills, no control was observed. By contrast, in Santa Catarina the dissolved oxygen level of the water is 5-6 ppm, and the snails remain mostly underwater, breathing with their gills. In this case the snails died within 24 h at a dose of 20 and 30 ppm of product. To test this observation, snails grown in polluted waters were forced to remain underwater in saponin solutions and water (control) preventing the use of their siphon to breathe. The snails exposed to saponin solutions died, while the control snails survived, indicating that they were still able to use their gills to breathe. These results indicate that the use of the saponin product is limited to rice fields not irrigated with heavily polluted waters.

Quantification for Saponin from a Soapberry (Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn) in Cleaning Products by a Chromatographic and two Colorimetric Assays

spectroscopy. Organically extracted crude soapnut saponin was employed as the standard. Linearity for the calibration graphs was found for the range of organic extracts of crude saponin down to 0.2 g/L aqueous solutions, for all three assays studied. The area of the main peak in the HPLC chromatograms and the absorbance values of two colorimetric assays of the commercial glycerin clear soap base with predetermined amount of soapnut extract were recorded and compared with calibration graphs constructed with an aque- ous saponin solution. It was found that HPLC analysis provided more precise values then the two colori- metric assays. Discrepancies were found between the saponin contents for 12 commercial cleaning prod- ucts in Taiwan as analyzed by HPLC and the values estimated by antimony pentachloride and vanillin-sulfu- ric colorimetric assays.

Formation of O/W macroemulsions with a circular microfluidic device using saponin and potato starch

The formation of O/W macroemulsions stabilized by a non-ionic surfactant ( Quillaja saponin) and gelatinized starch was investigated using a flow focusing device consisting of circular microchannels. Droplets of hot oil ( T oil = 338 K) were dispersed into an aqueous solution of saponin and potato starch granules. The oil fraction varied between 0.9% and 5% (dilute macroemulsions) while the starch-to-saponin concentration ratio, α, ranged between 0 and 187.5. The heat transfer from the hot oil droplet (340 to 725 μm in diameter) induced the gelatinization of the adjacent starch granules to create a thin-shell around the oil droplet. In order to optimize the droplet generation, the physical properties of fluids were determined and the interactions between saponin and gelatinized starch granules were studied by measuring the specific conductivity. In particular, the onset, peak and end temperatures of starch gelatinization were determined. For various α, the monodispersed regime was determined by measuring the oil droplet volume V drop. For all cases studied, V drop followed a power dependence with the flow rate of the aqueous phase but the exponents were different (0.65 < n < 0.9). The formation process, i.e. the dripping and jetting regime, and the generation time of oil droplets were also detailed.

Requirements for Maximal Enrichment of Viable Intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum Rings by Saponin Hemolysis

The purpose of the present study was to confirm the effectiveness of saponin hemolysis for concentrating ring-infected erythrocytes in Plasmodium falciparum cultures and to determine the actual numbers of the enriched parasites, not just percentage parasitemia. This is important because various molecular biology and vaccine development against malaria require useable quantities of pure culture with minimal number of uninfected erythrocytes at all stages. Synchronized cultures of three P. falciparum strains were exposed to 0.015% isotonic saponin solution for 30 minutes on ice. They were centrifuged and the pellets were treated again with saponin solution for 3-7 minutes. Initially, most of the cultures contained approximately 10(10) erythrocytes and 1-7% parasitemia, but at the end of the enrichment up to 10(8) of erythrocytes containing 90-99.8% parasitemia were recovered (maximal enrichment). From microscopic examination of the cells it was calculated that the hemolysis rate of uninfected and infected erythrocytes was circa 27 to 1, which could account for the enrichment. Studies by other investigators have suggested that P. falciparum merozoite invasion decreases erythrocyte membrane lipids, and it has been reported that reduction of membrane cholesterol could make erythrocytes saponin-resistant. The possibility that merozoite invasion made erythrocytes partially resistant to saponin hemolysis was strengthened by the observation that the proportions of multiple infections increased significantly in the enriched cultures. However, mature asexual parasites could not be concentrated by this method, suggesting possible differences between the membranes of erythrocytes containing ring forms and those of trophozoites and schizonts. Ring-infected erythrocytes freshly from malaria patients could also not be concentrated by the method described here, suggesting that the ability to induce saponin resistance in erythrocytes was acquired by the parasites in vitro.

Microbubble suspension as a carrier of oxygen and acclimated bacteria for phenanthrene biodegradation

The applicability of microbubble suspension made of saponin as a biodegradation-enhancing carrier where oxygen and pollutant-degraders are limited was studied. The saponin-microbubble suspension was used to deliver phenanthrene-degrading bacteria, inorganic nutrients, and oxygen. Bench-scale study was carried out to determine the physical properties of the microbubble suspension and to verify whether the delivered bacteria and oxygen were effectively used to degrade phenanthrene. A concentration of 2 g saponin/L H 2O generated stable microbubble suspension with a long half-drainage time and a high gas hold-up, and the addition of phenanthrene-degraders and inorganic salts to the saponin solution did not affect such properties. The flow of the microbubble suspension through a heterogeneous sand/clay-packed column occurred in two phases, with the liquid front advancing faster and the retarded gas front. The retarded gas front provided oxygen with bacteria, which enables phenanthrene biodegradation. Approximately 30% of the spiked phenanthrene was degraded in 21 days when one pore volume of 2.0 g/L saponin-microbubble suspension was applied whereas no phenanthrene decrease was observed following the application of the same saponin solution without microbubble generation. The decrease mainly occurred at the lower part of the column where the supply of oxygen by the microbubble was concentrated.

Disruption of Tight Junction Integrity, and Induced Mammary Involution in Lactating Goats by Saponins

Four multiparous pregnant Nubian goats at late lactation were subjected to injection of a saponin preparation from Gypsophila roots. Saponin solution was injected into one single gland of each goat after milking 8 times. At day 2 in treatment, milk yield began to be affected, and dropped down dramatically from day 3 till dry off at day 8. The pH value of milk was increased in udder halves treated with the saponin solution after 2 days, whereas the control halves exhibited semi-plateau manner all over the experiment. Sodium concentration increased and potassium concentration decreased after 2 d in treatment. Calcium concentration in the treated udder declined after 8 d and the values of these ions were roundabout the plasma concentrations indicating that milk secreted from the treated udder halves with saponins was mostly composed of interstitial fluid.

Efficacy of quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa) saponins against golden apple snail ( Pomacea canaliculata) in the Philippines under laboratory conditions

A novel product for managing Pomacea canaliculata, golden apple snail (GAS), containing quinoa saponins ( Chenopodium quinoa), was evaluated under laboratory conditions for the protection of newly sprouted rice seeds. Experimental methods mimicked conditions found in direct-seeded rice cultivation in the Philippines, but with a very high GAS density (90 snails/m 2). Protection of newly sprouted seeds was directly proportional to saponin concentration in rice water. At 9 and 11 ppm saponin, seedling protection after 48 h against GAS of different sizes was 93% and 95%, respectively. Seedling recovery after 5 d with 11 ppm saponin was 93%. This value declined to 0% and 4%, for the control (untreated) and niclosamide, a synthetic chemical molluscicide, respectively. The results indicated that although niclosamide provides high efficacy against GAS (100% mortality, 24 h), it has a serious detrimental effect on rice seedlings. Mean GAS mortality with 11 ppm saponin was low at 24 h (45%), but increased to 94% at 48 h. Thus, seedling protection was probably due to an almost immediate closure of the snail's opercula when exposed to saponin solutions, followed by significant death rates within 24 and 48 h. The product also exhibits ovicidal effects, particularly with 1–5 d old egg masses; older egg masses were less susceptible to the product. The use of 11 ppm saponin slightly affected shoot growth, but this effect disappeared with time and the plants attained normal development. Saponin application rates at 10 ppm saponin in the rice water correspond to ca. 6 kg product/ha under cultivation conditions used in the Philippines. These results suggest that quinoa saponins may represent a commercially feasible environmentally benign alternative to synthetic chemical molluscicides against GAS, particularly in direct-seeded rice culture.

Enthalpy of solution of tigogenin saponin in dioxane and the temperature dependence of its heat capacity

The heats of solution of tigogenin C27H44O3 in dioxane at dilutions equal to 1: 9000, 1: 18 000, and 1: 36 000 (mol solute/mol solvent) have been studied by isothermal calorimetry. The standard enthalpy of C27H44O3 solution in dioxane at infinite dilution was derived by the mathematical processing of the calorimetric data. Dynamic calorimetry over the range 173–423 K has been used to study the heat capacity of tigogenin. The C p o ∼ f(T) plot has a jump at 298.15. K. The standard enthalpies of formation and combustion and the heat of melting of tigogenin have been indirectly calculated.