Soldier Fly Research Articles

Extraction and Characteristics of Melanin from Black Soldier Fly (BSF) Pupal Skin as Biopolymer Raw Material

The generation of organic waste has increased globally in recent years. One way to degrade waste more quickly and carry out the bioconversion process of organic waste is to use insects. This BSF has attracted researchers to cultivate and utilize this biomass to extract biochemicals. However, in this research, pupal skin melanin (PSM) from BSF waste is used to obtain melanin. Melanin is a group of blackish-brown pigments with strong physical, chemical, and antimicrobial properties. These properties can be used as an alternative biopolymer material for various environmental sustainability purposes. The melanin extraction method consists of three main steps, namely demineralization, deproteination, and deacetylation, which will be compared with the results of melanin purification from Sepia officinalis melanin (SOM). Characteristics using FTIR, SEM, and EDS to determine the comparison of the quality of melanin obtained from the extraction of pupal skin with commercial melanin from Sepia officinalis. The research results obtained from FTIR analysis show that there are distinctive peaks that correspond to the structure of melanin, including hydroxyl groups (-OH), amine groups (-NH), carboxyl groups (-COOH), and aromatic groups. For SEM analysis, the morphology of PSM and SOM shows differences in surface condition. The melanin resulting from Sepia officinalis is not homogeneous and contains many lumps or aggregates. Whereas the surface of melanin from pupal skin is more homogeneous or looks smoother, but there are still small aggregates on the surface. Furthermore, from the EDS analysis, the total pure concentration was 99.33% for SOM and 69.78% for PSM.

Impact of processing technologies on insect meal digestibility in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

Abstract The objective of this study was to compare the apparent digestibility coefficients (ADCs) of nutrients and energy of three differently processed black soldier fly (BSF) meals in rainbow trout and European sea bass. The processing techniques included defatting with heat treatment followed by tricanter centrifugation, with or without an enzyme hydrolysis step, as well as microwave drying. In the experimental design, each processed BSF meal was mixed with a reference diet at a 30% inclusion level, using celite as an inert digestibility marker and fed to triplicate groups of rainbow trout and European sea bass. For the European sea bass trial, an additional diet with full fat oven-dried BSF meal was also evaluated. In rainbow trout, all the processed insect meals exhibited high digestibility, with no significant differences among the BSF meals. All the amino acids were highly digestible, with ADCs ranging from 84.8% to 93.6% for the essential amino acids and from 78% to 93.2% for the non-essential ones without significant differences between treatments (). In European sea bass, while fat and energy digestibility was similar, protein digestibility was significantly higher in all the processed BSF meals when compared to the oven-dried meal (). Between the two full fat insect meals, microwave drying significantly improved dry matter and protein digestibility of BSF meal when compared to oven-drying ( and , respectively). No differences were observed in the digestibility of the two defatted insect meals (), thus suggesting that enzymatic hydrolysis did not affect their digestibility in either fish species. This study suggests that processing techniques such as defatting and microwave drying can enhance the nutritional quality and digestibility of BSF meals and offers insights for optimizing insect-based feeds in aquaculture.

Biodiversity of soldier flies (Diptera, Stratiomyidae) of the Crimean Peninsula

Annotated list of soldier flies (Diptera, Stratiomyidae) of the Crimean Peninsula is presented. It comprises 42 species from 14 genera of 6 subfamilies. Nine species are recorded for the first time in the Crimea. The fauna of Stratiomyidae of the Crimean Peninsula is compared with the faunas of countries situated around the Black Sea (Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey).

Effect of Alkaline Extraction–Isoelectric Precipitation and Salt-Assisted Extraction on Physicochemical and Techno-Functional Properties of Black Soldier Fly Larvae Proteins

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae are an increasingly popular source of protein in the food industry, and they are showing great potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional protein sources. However, to fully utilize the potential of insect protein as food, it is important to improve their functional characteristics. The purpose of this study was to thoroughly examine the influence of alkaline extraction and isoelectric precipitation methods assisted by salting-in (NaCl) and salting-out ((NH4)2SO4) techniques on the functional properties of BSF larvae proteins. The physicochemical and techno−functional properties of the proteins were determined. The addition of (NH4)2SO4 significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the solubility of protein, particularly at pH 2, suggesting its potential applicability in acidic food systems. Surface hydrophobicity was modulated by salt treatment, with salting-out methods reducing hydrophobicity and affecting protein functionality. The correlation analysis demonstrated a significant positive relationship (p < 0.05) between the various functional properties, emphasizing their interconnected nature. Foam capacity and foam stability showed a positive relationship with protein solubility at pH 4 (r = 0.88, p < 0.05; r = 0.74, p < 0.01, respectively). These findings imply the potential use of BSF larvae proteins in food formulations, especially considering the positive correlations observed between emulsification properties, solubility, and surface hydrophobicity. The identified correlations lay the groundwork for further exploration of BSF larvae proteins as sustainable functional ingredients in food applications, aligning with growing interest in alternative protein sources for the food industry.

The Extension of Maggot as a High-Protein Chicken Feed for Latompe Farming Community

This service program aims to provide an alternative feed for local chickens (Gallus domesticus) with high protein to the Latompe farming community. The alternative feed are maggots which are the larvae of Black Soldier Flies (Hermetia illucens). It is hoped that the chicken farmers in Latompe village will no longer only depend on carbohydrate-based feed such as corn to obtain maximum chicken growth. To transfer that new technology, the farmer's educators managed a mass socialization and made presentation slides, leaflets, and on-site practice followed by periodic assistance. As a result, the maggot extension program has been running well and several breeders have been able to cultivate maggots for their chickens' feed. It is hoped that this program can be implemented sustainably to obtain maximum production of local chickens.

Dietary inclusion of black soldier fly, cricket and superworm in rainbow trout aquaculture: impacts on growth and nutrient profiles

Abstract Inclusion of fishmeal and fish oil in aquafeeds is unsustainable, prompting the need for alternative protein and lipid sources. This study evaluates the impact of diets incorporating defatted black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), adult cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus) and superworm (Zophobas morio) on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, nutrient retention efficiency, fatty acid and amino acid profiles of juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Juvenile trout (100.5 ± 0.6 g; mean ± SD) were fed one of four diets: a control diet with 20% fishmeal, and three experimental diets containing a total of 15% defatted black soldier fly meal, full-fat adult cricket meal, or full-fat superworm meal, with partial replacement of fishmeal and fish oil. Growth performance and body indices were unaffected by dietary treatments. Whole carcass content and retention efficiency of protein were higher in fish fed the control and superworm diets compared to those on cricket and black soldier fly diets. Despite reduced retention efficiency of leucine, phenylalanine, glutamic acid, and serine, carcass amino acid contents were not affected by dietary treatment. Fatty acid retention efficiency was greater in fish on the black soldier fly diet, though overall lipid content was consistent across diets. Notably, lauric acid and myristic acid levels were elevated in the black soldier fly group, while linoleic acid was higher in fish fed the superworm and cricket diets. Phosphorus retention improved significantly with the black soldier fly treatment, yet nitrogen retention was reduced. These findings suggest that insect meals can partially replace fishmeal and fish oil in trout diets without compromising growth or fatty acid composition.

Proximate analysis and profiles of amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals in insect-based foods for dogs.

To analyze crude protein, crude fat, crude ash, crude fiber, amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals in insect-based dog foods and to evaluate their compliance with nutritional guidelines. Proximate analysis, mineral analysis, amino acid profiling, and fatty acid composition analysis were conducted from November 27, 2023, through February 2024 on 18 commercially available insect-based dog foods formulated for all-life-stage or adult dogs. Proximate analysis results revealed that all 18 pet foods met the Association of American Feed Control Officials guidelines. However, discrepancies were observed between the values listed on the packaging and those measured in 7 foods. Mineral analysis showed that while all foods met the Association of American Feed Control Officials guidelines for magnesium, discrepancies were found in calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iron, and copper content, with several samples failing to meet recommended levels. Additionally, 2 foods exceeded the recommended maximum ratio for certain fatty acids. Black soldier fly larvae-based foods contained higher levels of lauric and myristic acids compared to other insect-based foods. Insect-based dog foods show promise as sustainable protein sources, but discrepancies in mineral content and fatty acid ratios highlight the need for both stricter regulation and better enforcement of existing guidelines to ensure nutritional adequacy for dog health and accurate labeling. This study provides valuable insights into the nutritional composition of insect-based dog foods, revealing inconsistencies in mineral content and fatty acid ratios. These findings can help the pet food industry develop more nutritionally consistent insect-based diets.

Pengolahan Sampah Organik Menggunakan Maggot BSF sebagai Pakan Ikan Alternatif pada Desa Lesmana, Banyumas

Organic waste has become a significant problem in Lesmana Village, Ajibarang District, Banyumas Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia. The treatment of organic wastes needs to be done by various means, one of them using black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) maggots. The training in maggot farming aimed to explore maggot potency as a decomposing agent in organic waste treatment, and analyzed the factors affecting the process, including environment, type of waste, and operational scale. The establishment of maggot farming has the potencial to be developed as an alternative fish pellet with high protein content. The community service methods involved eight persons from a community self-help group (Kelompok Swadaya Masyarakat), namely Berkah Runtah in Lesmana Village, who participated in the education seminar on 2nd July and continuous maggot farm training in July 2024. Besides the training, a seminar about using maggot as fish pellets was also held on 15th July to increase community knowledge about maggot use as a fish pellet. The farming cage size was 1.5 m x 1 m x 0.5 m, which was also an output of this activity. In conclusion, education and implementation of organic waste treatment using maggots in Lesmana Village showed great potency in establishing sustainable organic waste treatment as well as empowerment of society.

Providing black soldier fly maggot flour (Hermetia illucens) as a substitute for concentrated feed for the low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) content of broiler chickens

This study aims to determine the effect of concentrate substitution with maggot black soldier fly flour in the ration on the percentage of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) in broilers. This study used 20 broilers strain Cobb 500 aged five weeks. The P0 group was given a basal diet consisting of 30% concentrate, 60% corn, and 10% rice bran. Groups of P1, P2, P3, and P4 were given basal diet with concentrate substitution of 2, 4, 6, 8% with maggot flour, respectively. Data collection was carried out at the end of the study. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that the substitution of concentrate with maggot flour from black soldier flies had no significant effect (p>0.05) on the percentage of Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) and High Density Lipoprotein(HDL)

Evaluating the Impact of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae Meal on Growth Efficiency and Feed Utilization in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Juvenile

Aims: Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae meal is a promising alternative protein source in aquafeed, offering high nutritional value and essential amino acid profiles like fishmeal. Nepalese Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming currently relies on imported shrimp meal, presenting economic and ecological challenges. The focus of this research was to examines the potential of BSFL meal to replace the shrimp meal in trout feed. Place and Duration of Study: Fisheries Research Station (FRS), Trishuli Nepal, between May 1 to August 7, 2023. Methodology: A feeding trial was conducted using 750 healthy Rainbow trout (mean individual body weight 5.39±0.55 g) randomly divided into five experimental groups, each having three replicates. The control diet contained no BSFL meal (CON), while experimental diets replaced 25% (BSF25), 50% (BSF50), 75% (BSF75), and 100% (BSF100) of shrimp meal with BSFL meal. Fish were raised in flow-through raceway tanks (300L) and fed twice daily until satiation. The growth efficiency parameters were measured. Results: The results demonstrated that diets with 25-50% BSFL meal substitution (B25, B50) significantly enhanced growth efficiency compared to the control, reflected in higher final body weight and weight gain, and improved feed conversion ratios (P<0.05). Conversely, higher replacement levels (75% and 100%) negatively impacted growth, possibly due to increased chitin content affecting digestibility. Statistical analysis confirmed the optimal BSFL inclusion range for growth efficiency, with specific growth rates peaking in the B50 group. Conclusion: In conclusion, BSFL meal can effectively replace 25-50% of shrimp meal in rainbow trout feed, offering a viable and sustainable protein source for trout farming in Nepal. This substitution could reduce dependency on imported shrimp, promoting more sustainable practices.

Extraction of chitin and chitosan from Hermetia illucens breeding waste: A greener approach for industrial application

Sustainably exploiting the waste of the black soldier fly (BSF) to produce chitin and chitosan remains a challenge. This work valorizes the pupal cases of BSF for chitin and chitosan extraction. Four chemical extraction processes have been employed. Process 1, the standard method for this source, served as a control. Processes 2 and 3 were designed to assess and select the most effective delipidation method, while the optimized Process 4 involved autoclave conditions (121 °C-2.2 Bar). All chitin derivatives obtained were characterized by FTIR, SEM, XRD, 1H NMR, TGA, potentiometry, viscosimetry, and ICP-OES. Extraction using Process 4 (P4) proved to be the most efficient, demonstrating a deproteinization efficiency of 94.25 ± 0.6 % in a total reaction time of 1.15 ± 0.08 h and water consumption of 250 ± 26.86 L/kg, significantly lower than in other processes. In terms of yield, this process resulted in chitin and chitosan with respective yields of 34.74 ± 1.15 % and 83.33 ± 1.28 %, outperforming the other methods. Regarding physicochemical properties, P4 produced chitin and chitosan with improved thermal stability, with DTGmax values of 421 °C and 345 °C respectively. Additionally, the crystallinity of chitin was reduced by 25.68 %. For chitosan, the degree of acetylation (DA) was the lowest, while maintaining a high molecular weight of 220,378 g.mol−1. These results confirm that P4 is efficient and environmentally friendly, making it well-suited for industrial applications.

Hepatic Gene Expression Changes of Zebrafish Fed Yeast Prebiotic, Yeast Probiotic, Black Soldier Fly Meal, and Butyrate

As global fish consumption rises, improving fish health through immunomodulatory feed ingredients shows promise while also supporting growth performance. This study investigated the effects of yeast prebiotics, probiotics, a postbiotic (butyrate), and black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal on fish immune responses. Zebrafish were fed diets containing these ingredients for 63 days and then exposed to either Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or live Flavobacterium psychrophilum to assess hepatic candidate gene expression and weight gain. No mortalities were observed post-immune challenges, and weight gains were not significantly different across treatments. Liver samples were collected for mRNA analysis, and real-time qPCR was used to evaluate the expression of immune-related genes such as TNF-α, IL-1β, hepcidin, and NF-κB/p65. NF-κB/p65 was upregulated in response to immune challenges, indicating a reaction to both LPS and pathogen exposure. Fish on the BSFL diet showed decreased NF-κB/p65 expression after the pathogen challenge, while probiotic-fed fish had reduced angiopoietin-like 4 (angptl4) levels following LPS exposure. Butyrate supplementation had the most significant impact, downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and other immune-related genes, suggesting a protective effect. These findings support the health benefits of BSFL and sodium butyrate during an immune challenge.

Assessing the performance, egg quality, serum analysis, heavy metals and essential trace metals accumulation in laying hen eggs and tissues fed black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae convert wastes into protein, playing a vital role in addressing the challenge of sustainable poultry production. These larvae accumulate toxic substances, posing a risk to feed and food safety. This study investigates the effects of substituting soybean meal with different levels of BSF larvae meal on laying performance, egg quality, serum analysis, and the deposition of various metals in eggs, meat, and excreta. A total of 1,008 Lohmann hens (age 48 wk) were randomly assigned to 4 treatments. The treatments consisted of corn-soybean meal (CK) diet replaced with 7% (BSF7), 14% (BSF14), and 21% (BSF21) BSF larvae meal. Each treatment consisted of 6 replicates with 42 hens each and the trial lasted for 8 wk. Dietary BSF larvae meal treatments increased (linear, P < 0.05) the laying rate (1.52 to 1.95%) and decreased (linear, P < 0.01) the feed intake (3.64-3.86 g) during the entire experiment. During 48 to 52 wk, egg weight was decreased (P < 0.001) 0.93 g for the BSF21 group compared to CK group, however, during 52-56 wk, no differences in egg weight were observed among treatments. The addition of BSF larvae meal enhanced the eggshell strength (linear, P < 0.05), with no effect on the albumen height and yolk weight (P > 0.05). Low transfer of arsenic, lead, and cadmium concentration was observed in the egg yolk and egg white across different treatments (P > 0.05). Conversely, the concentrations of these metals and iron showed an increase, while Zinc exhibited a decrease in excreta as the dietary intake of BSF larvae meal increased. The chromium and iron increased linearly (P < 0.001) in the egg white with the inclusion of BSF larvae meal. Egg white iron and chromium showed a strong positive correlation with the dietary zinc and copper. Taken together, BSF larvae can replace soybean meal completely in laying diet, however, careful attention requires to elevated metal levels in diet and excreta.

Design, Fabrication and Performance Analysis of a Mixed Mode Solar Dryer for Black Soldier Fly Larvae

The use of black soldier fly (BSF) for organic waste conversion and as an alternative source of animal feeds is sustainable and gaining momentum. The flies are easy to rear and the larvae is a rich source of crude protein, fatty acids, amino acids and vitamins that are important components in poultry, pig and fish feed. Prior to processing, the larvae must be dried up. This research is focused on the design, fabrication and performance analysis of a mixed mode solar dryer for black soldier fly (BSF) larvae. The mixed mode solar dyer constitutes two main parts: solar collector, and drying chamber with three trays was fabricate for the purpose and used. A sample containing 750g of BSF larvae were immobilized and dried to a constant mass of 302 g on the dryer. The maximum drying temperature attained during the drying process was 61oC, which corresponds to the highest intensity of solar radiation (833W/𝑚ଶ ) recorded at the experiment site 12.00 noon. The highest efficiency of the solar collector was 57.58% at 12.00 pm while the lowest collector efficiency was 33.9 % at 9:00 am

Black soldier fly as a target for pig feed production

Black soldier fly as a target for pig feed production

A preliminary study on the effects of substituting fishmeal with defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larval meal on Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) juveniles: Growth performance, feed efficiency, nutrient composition, disease resistance, and economic returns.

This study aims to develop an alternative aquafeed derived from insect meal for Lates calcarifer juveniles, with the objectives of exploring the physiological performance, biological parameters, and economic analysis of substituting fishmeal (FM) with defatted black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae (BSFL) as part of the diet of L. calcarifer juveniles. Five practical diets were formulated to include 0% (BSFL0, serves as control group), 5% (BSFL5), 10% (BSFL10), 15% (BSFL15), and 20% (BSFL20) of BSFL meal, partially or fully replacing FM, respectively. Each diet was randomly assigned to triplicate groups of 30 fish (10.70 ± 0.07 g) per tank (300 L). The fish were fed twice daily to apparent satiation. A 56-day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the impacts of defatted BSFL meal replacing FM on the growth performance, feed efficiency, composition analysis of fish muscle, cumulative mortality rate challenged with Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and economic returns of L. calcarifer. These results show that differences in weight gain and specific growth rate among the different treatments were statistically significant (p < 0.05), except for the absence of significant variation (p < 0.05) between BSFL0 and BSFL5, and followed by BSFL10 > BSFL0 > BSFL5 > BSFL15 > BSFL20. However, the feed conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio showed the opposite trend as above. Although the diets experienced a decline in crude protein content and an increase in crude fat content with the increasing proportion of BSFL substituting FM, the crude protein and fat content of fish muscle were only slightly influenced. It is worth mentioning that levels of nonessential amino acids, delicious amino acids, saturated fatty acids, omega-6, omega-9 in BSFL10 group all showed an increase compared with the control group. After a 7-day challenge test with V. parahaemolyticus, the cumulative mortality rates of the BSFL5 and BSFL10 groups, respectively, dropped to 5.20%, 5.28% compared to the control group's 16.88%; however, the mortality rates of BSFL15 (34.67%) and BSFL20 (41.77%) groups were found to be significantly (p < 0.05) increased. From an economic perspective, the incidence cost for each experimental group showed a trend as BSFL10 < BSFL0 < BSFL5 < BSFL15 < BSFL20, whereas the profit index in each treatment exhibited the opposite trend as above. It was concluded that low (5%) or moderate (10%) levels of BSFL substituting FM in aquaculture feed could improve the physiological performances, disease resistance, and economic returns of L. calcarifer. However, excessive substitution (>15%) leads to a negative effect. From an economic point of view, 10% inclusion of BSFL in practical diets is recommended for L. calcarifer juveniles.

Integrating vermicompost, black soldier fly, and inorganic fertilizers enhances corn growth and yield

Integrating vermicompost, black soldier fly, and inorganic fertilizers enhances corn growth and yield

Antennal olfactory responses in the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens

The Black Soldier Fly (BSF) is considered as the “crown jewel” of the insect feed industry and circular economy, significantly contributing to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals by reducing carbon dioxide emissions and enabling circular management of organic waste, animal manure, and plant residues. Despite their industrial importance, limited knowledge about adult BSF biology has hindered optimal mass production. In this context, the present paper aims to explore the olfactory capabilities of both male and female BSF in response to various odorants commonly associated with organic decomposition in substrates suitable for mate encounters and egg laying. This will be achieved by performing electroantennographic recordings and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations on the antennal sensilla. Our results demonstrate for the first time the supposed olfactory capabilities of BSF antennae and present a first dataset of substances emitted by decaying organic matter detected by both male and female flies. Additionally, the current EAG recordings allowed comparisons with molecular data previously obtained through in silico and in vitro methods, highlighting the need for caution and strongly supporting a multidisciplinary approach as the best tool for investigating insect chemical ecology. These findings advance our understanding of BSF chemical ecology, which is crucial for effective reproduction and could significantly optimize global breeding systems

Comprehensive utilization of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae: extraction, recovery and characterization of peptide, chitin and melanin and scaling-up trial

Comprehensive utilization of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae: extraction, recovery and characterization of peptide, chitin and melanin and scaling-up trial

Bioconversion of Horeca (Hotel, Restaurant and Catering) Food Waste into Black Soldier Fly Larvae Oil

Abstract Horeca Food Waste is waste from the hotel, restaurant and catering sectors. The hotel industry generates 0.8-1.2 kg of food waste per guest. A bioconversion process can be used as a technique for treating food waste. The oil content of BSFL constitutes 35-45% of their whole weight. Research must be conducted on the bioconversion of horeca food waste (from hotels, restaurants, and catering) into oil derived from black soldier fly larvae. The study utilised horeca waste bioconversion to investigate environmental parameters, analyse the bioconversion properties of food waste, extract BSF larvae oil by the maceration technique, and evaluate the physicochemical attributes of the obtained oil. The bioconversion qualities of food waste by black soldier fly larvae were assessed by determining the values of D (waste reduction rate), WRI (Waste Reduction Index), FMCR (Fresh Matter Consumption Rate), DMCR (Dry Matter Consumption Rate), DMR (Dry Matter Reduction), and ECD (Efficiency of Conversion Digested feed). The fat content recovered from BSFL was measured at 35.9%, 34.9%, and 24.5%. The oil yield obtained from horeca waste was determined to be 18.9%, 18.3%, and 20.4%. The physicochemical characteristics acquired from the three samples indicated that the water content, iodine, saponification, and refractive index parameters did not meet the specified quality standards. The oil’s fatty acid composition was primarily composed of saturated fatty acids (SFA), with respective values of 66.24%, 72.63%, and 66.89%. BSF larvae oil has potential as an intermediate product for making bio-diesel, bio-lubricants and bio-grease.