Sodium Channel Alpha-subunit Gene Research Articles

Translational Research in Epilepsy Genetics

Voltage-gated sodium channels are critical for membrane excitability. Mutations in the genes coding for these proteins cause diseases related to altered excitability of cardiac or skeletal muscle and neurons. Mutations in the central nervous system-specific voltage-gated sodium channel alpha1 subunit gene (SCN1A) lead not only to seizure syndromes but also to familial hemiplegic migraine. The epilepsies range from benign febrile seizures to the catastrophic epileptic encephalopathy of Dravet syndrome (severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy). Recently developed animal models of SCN1A mutants recapitulate the human disease. These models exemplify the potential inherent in translational research to debunk preconceived ideas regarding pathogenesis by showing the cellular substrate of Dravet syndrome to be interneurons rather than excitatory cells. This illustrates the key role that basic science plays in the development of targeted novel therapies and, ultimately, in the prevention of devastating genetic disorders.

Biochemical and Molecular Analysis of Deltamethrin Resistance in the Common Bed Bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)

This study establishes deltamethrin resistance in a common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., population collected from New York City (NY-BB). The NY-BB population was 264-fold more resistant to 1% deltamethrin in contact bioassay compared with an insecticide-susceptible population collected in Florida (FL-BB). General esterase, glutathione S-transferase, and 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylase activities of NY-BB were not statistically different from those of FL-BB. cDNA fragments that encoded the open reading frame of voltage-sensitive sodium channel alpha-subunit genes from the FL-BB and NY-BB populations, respectively, were obtained by homology probing polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. Sequence alignment of the internal and 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) fragments generated a 6500-bp cDNA sequence contig, which was composed of a 6084-bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding 2027 amino acid residues and 186-bp 5' and 230-bp 3' untranslated regions (5' and 3' UTRs, respectively). Sequence comparisons of the open reading frames of the alpha-subunit genes identified two point mutations (V419L and L925I) that were presented only in the NY-BB population. L925I, located the intracellular loop between IIS4 and IIS5, has been previously found in a highly pyrethroid-resistant populations of whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). V419L, located in the IS6 transmembrane segment, is a novel mutation. A Val to Met mutation at the corresponding position of the bed bug V419, however, has been identified in the tobacco budworm as a kdr-type mutation. This evidence suggests that the two mutations are likely the major resistance-causing mutations in the deltamethrin-resistant NY-BB through a knockdown-type nerve insensitivity mechanism.

Exercise test on the patients with normokalaemic periodic paralysis from a Chinese family with a mutation in the SCN4A gene

Normokalaemic periodic paralysis (normoKPP) is characterized by transient and recurrent myoasthenia, and some patients also show muscle stiffness induced by cold exposure (paramyotonia congenita, PMC). It is caused by a mutation in the muscle voltage gated sodium channel alpha subunit (SCN4A) gene. Due to the diversity of the clinical manifestations of patients, it is difficult for clinicians to differentiate some of patients with atypical normoKPP from those who suffer from other periodic paralysis and nondystrophic myotonia. So far, for normoKPP there are almost no ways to assist definite diagnosis besides genetic screening. This research was designed to evaluate an exercise test (ET) in confirming the diagnosis of normoKPP and in assessing the therapeutic effectiveness of some drugs on this disease. ET, described by McMains, was performed on six subjects from a Chinese family, including four patients with overlapping disease of normoKPP and PMC caused by a mutation of SCN4A Met1592Val that is identified by genetic analysis and two normal control members. The change of compound muscle action potential (CMAP) was recorded. Besides the family, two patients were also tested during treatments with acetazolamide. All patients showed a slight increase in CMAP immediately after exercise, followed by an abnormal gradual decline, which reached its nadir 25-30 minutes after exercise. CMAP amplitude dropped by more than 40% in patients but less than 23% in controls. In the patients who received treatment with acetazolamide, the change of CMAP amplitude was less than 28% and, at any fixed times, less than pretreatment values. The ET may be used as a predictive, easy and reliable method of diagnosing normoKPP under conditions without genetic screening help, and is an objective way to evaluate the therapeutic effectiveness. According to different response patterns, the ET may also be helpful in reducing the scope of genetic screening.

A Novel Locus for Generalized Epilepsy With Febrile Seizures Plus in French Families

Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS(+)) is a familial autosomal dominant entity characterized by the association of febrile and afebrile seizures. Mutations in 3 genes--the sodium channel alpha1 subunit gene (SCN1A), the sodium channel beta1 subunit gene (SCN1B), and the gamma2 GABA receptor subunit gene (GABRG2)--and linkage to 2 other loci on 2p24 and 21q22 have been identified in families with GEFS(+), indicating genetic heterogeneity. To localize by means of linkage analysis a new gene for GEFS(+) in a large family with 11 affected members and to test the new locus in 4 additional families with GEFS(+). Family-based linkage analysis. University hospital. Five French families with GEFS(+) and at least 7 available affected members with autosomal dominant transmission. All the patients had febrile seizures and/or afebrile generalized tonic-clonic seizures or absence epilepsy. We analyzed 380 microsatellite markers and conducted linkage analysis. In the largest family, a 10-cM-density genomewide scan revealed linkage to a 13-Mb (megabase) interval on chromosome 8p23-p21 with a maximum pairwise logarithm of odds (LOD) score of 3.00 (at Theta = 0) for markers D8S351 and D8S550 and a multipoint LOD score of 3.23. A second family with GEFS(+) was also possibly linked to chromosome 8p23-p21 and the region was narrowed to a 7.3-Mb candidate interval, flanked by markers D8S1706 and D8S549. We have not, so far, identified mutations in the coding exons of 6 candidate genes (MTMR9, MTMR7, CTSB, SGCZ, SG223, and ATP6V1B2) located in the genetic interval. We report a sixth locus for GEFS(+) on chromosome 8p23-p21. Because no ion channel genes are located in this interval, identification of the responsible gene will probably uncover a new mechanism of pathogenesis for GEFS(+).

Severe neonatal non‐dystrophic myotonia secondary to a novel mutation of the voltage‐gated sodium channel (SCN4A) gene

We report on a patient with a severe, rare neonatal form of non-dystrophic myotonia. The patient presented with facial dysmorphism, muscle hypertrophy, severe constipation, psychomotor delay, and frequent cold-induced episodes of myotonia and muscle weakness leading to severe hypoxia and loss of consciousness. Muscle biopsy was non-specific and electromyography revealed intense generalized myotonia. The myotonic episodes improved after introducing oral mexiletine and maintaining room temperature at 28 degrees C. The patient died at 20 months of age following a bronchopulmonary infection. A previously undescribed de novo heterozygous c.3891C > A change, which predicts p.N1297K in the SCN4A gene. Mutations within the voltage-gated sodium channel alpha-subunit gene (SCN4A) have been described in association with several phenotypes including paramyotonia congenita, hyperkalemic or hypokalemic periodic paralysis, and potassium-aggravated myotonias. The cold-sensitive episodes of stiffness followed by weakness suggested the diagnosis of channelopathy in our patient. However, her neonatal onset, the triggering of severe episodes by exposure to modest decreases in temperature, involvement of respiratory muscles with prolonged apnea, early-onset muscle hypertrophy, psychomotor retardation, and fatal outcome are evocative of a distinct clinical subtype. Our observation expands the phenotypic spectrum of sodium channelopathies.

SCN5A variants in Japanese patients with left ventricular noncompaction and arrhythmia

Left ventricular noncompaction (LVNC) is a genetically heterogenous disorder. Mutations in the human cardiac sodium channel alpha-subunit gene ( SCN5A) are involved in the pathophysiology of cardiac arrhythmias and cardiomyopathies. This study was performed to compare the frequency of SCN5A variants in LVNC patients with or without arrhythmias, and to investigate the relationship between variants and disease severity. DNA was isolated from the peripheral blood of 62 Japanese probands with LVNC, comprising 17 familial cases and 45 sporadic cases. Blood samples were screened for variants in SCN5A using single-strand conformational polymorphism analysis (SSCP) and DNA sequencing. Seven variants, rs6599230:G > A, c.453C > T, c.1141-3C > A, rs1805124:A > G (p.H558R), rs1805125:C > T (p.P1090L), c.3996C > T, and rs1805126:T > C were identified in 7 familial and 12 sporadic cases. The frequency of SCN5A variants was significantly higher in the patients with arrhythmias than those without (50% vs 7%: P = 0.0003), suggesting these variants represent a risk factor for arrhythmia and supporting the hypothesis that genes encoding ion channels are involved in LVNC pathophysiology. The LVNC patients with heart failure also had high occurence of SCN5A variants, suggesting the presence of SCN5A variants and/or arrhythmias increase the severity of LVNC.

Mutations of sodium channel alpha-subunit genes in Chinese patients with normokalemic periodic paralysis.

In this study, we aim to investigate the clinical features and Mutations of sodium channel alpha-subunit (SCN4A) genes in Chinese patients with normokalemic periodic paralysis (normoKPP). Six unrelated Chinese families with normoKPP were analyzed in clinical features. Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes and amplified with PCR. We screened all 24 exons of SCN4A gene with denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) technology, and then sequence analysis was performed in those who showed heteroduplex as compared with unaffected controls. The laboratory tests were within normal ranges. Electromyograms and electrocardiograms were normal. One muscle biopsy was performed with the patient in family 4 after a brief attack of normoKPP. Examination of light microscopy showed no changes, but electronic microscopy showed occasionally degenerating myofibers. The mutations of SCN4A genes were as follows: (1) Met1592Val occurred in family 1. (2) Val-781-Ile occurred with the patient and her father in family 4. (3) Both the patients had a novel mutation g2101a predicting the amino acid exchange Arg675Gln in family 5, which may be a disease-causing mutation. In addition to Val-781-Ile and Met1592Val, the mutation g2101a (Arg675Gln) may be the novel mutation of SCN4A genes in Chinese patients with normoKPP.

Detection of Pyrethroid Resistance Gene in Head Lice in Schoolchildren from Bobigny, France

The head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis (De Geer), is an hematophagous ectoparasite that affects mainly children. Resistance to insecticides belonging to pyrethroids and other pediculicides, such as malathion, is responsible for frequently reported treatment failures. Recent studies showed that a M815I-T929I-L932F kdr-like mutation in the voltage-gated sodium channel alpha-subunit gene was associated with permethrin resistance in head lice from several countries worldwide. We searched for the presence ofpyrethroid resistance gene in head lice populations obtained in schoolchildren in an urban area of France. All the 15 primary schools of Bobigny, a city located 3 km north of Paris, were selected to participate. Of 3,493 children enrolled, 3,345 (95.8%) children were screened for head lice by using fine-toothed antilouse combs. Live head lice were detected in 112 (3.3%) of children screened. A subsample of 90 lice was processed for DNA study. The amplification of a 332-bp portion of the kdr-like gene spanning the codon 929 was performed, and polymerase chain reaction products were submitted to the restriction enzyme SspI. Twenty of these lice (22.2%) were homozygous susceptible, 33 (36.7%) were homozygous resistant, and 37 (41.1%) were heterozygotes. Globally, the frequency of the T929I mutation was 0.57. The prevalence of pediculosis in schoolchildren of Bobigny seemed relatively low in comparison with findings of other European studies. The presence of the T929I mutation associated with permethrin resistance probably reflected the frequent local use of this insecticide. Further studies are now required to evaluate the prevalence of the kdr-like mutant allele in head lice in French schools.

Association of Human SCN5A Polymorphisms With Idiopathic Ventricular Arrhythmia in a Chinese Han Cohort

Mutations of human cardiac sodium channel alpha subunit gene (SCN5A) have been implicated in risk of various cardiac arrhythmias. The present study aimed to investigate whether SCN5A polymorphism was related to the occurrence of idiopathic ventricular arrhythmia (IVA) in Chinese Han patients. Genotyping for polymorphic variance of SCN5A was performed by polymerase chain reaction and automated gene scan sequencing analysis in 31 unrelated Chinese patients with IVA (IVA group) and 103 healthy controls (control group). The allele frequencies of c.87G>A (p.Ala29Ala) and c.1673A>G (p.His558Arg) were higher in men than in women for control group (p=0.023 and p=0.027, respectively). For women, patients with IVA had higher allele frequency of c.87G>A than controls (0.455 vs 0.198, p=0.013, odds ratio (OR) 3.382), whereas for men, minor allele c.1673A>G was significantly less prevalent in IVA patients compared with controls (0.025 vs 0.175, p=0.017, OR 0.121). Significant difference existed in occurrence of ventricular arrhythmia between female patients with 87GA/AA and those with 87GG genotypes (0.348 vs 0.097, p=0.039, OR 4.978) and between male patients with 1673AA and those with 1673AG/GG genotypes (0.311 vs 0.053, p=0.031, OR 8.143). The frequency of haplotype GG (87G-1673G) was significantly lower in IVA patients than in controls (0.016 vs 0.128, p=0.009, OR 0.109). The present study indicates that Chinese Han people have significant difference in distribution of 2 single nucleotide polymorphisms (c.87G>A and c.1673A>G) between healthy male and females. The 87A allele might be associated with an increased risk of IVA in females, whereas 1673G allele might have been positively selected because of its protective effects against ventricular arrhythmia in males.

Gene Duplications and Evolution of Vertebrate Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels

Voltage-gated sodium channels underlie action potential generation in excitable tissue. To establish the evolutionary mechanisms that shaped the vertebrate sodium channel alpha-subunit (SCNA) gene family and their encoded Nav1 proteins, we identified all SCNA genes in several teleost species. Molecular cloning revealed that teleosts have eight SCNA genes, compared to ten in another vertebrate lineage, mammals. Prior phylogenetic analyses have indicated that the genomes of both teleosts and tetrapods contain four monophyletic groups of SCNA genes, and that tandem duplications expanded the number of genes in two of the four mammalian groups. However, the number of genes in each group varies between teleosts and tetrapods, suggesting different evolutionary histories in the two vertebrate lineages. Our findings from phylogenetic analysis and chromosomal mapping of Danio rerio genes indicate that tandem duplications are an unlikely mechanism for generation of the extant teleost SCNA genes. Instead, analyses of other closely mapped genes in D. rerio as well as of SCNA genes from several teleost species all support the hypothesis that a whole-genome duplication was involved in expansion of the SCNA gene family in teleosts. Interestingly, despite their different evolutionary histories, mRNA analyses demonstrated a conservation of expression patterns for SCNA orthologues in teleosts and tetrapods, suggesting functional conservation.

De-novo mutations of the sodium channel gene SCN1A in alleged vaccine encephalopathy: a retrospective study

Vaccination, particularly for pertussis, has been implicated as a direct cause of an encephalopathy with refractory seizures and intellectual impairment. We postulated that cases of so-called vaccine encephalopathy could have mutations in the neuronal sodium channel alpha1 subunit gene (SCN1A) because of a clinical resemblance to severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI) for which such mutations have been identified. We retrospectively studied 14 patients with alleged vaccine encephalopathy in whom the first seizure occurred within 72 h of vaccination. We reviewed the relation to vaccination from source records and assessed the specific epilepsy phenotype. Mutations in SCN1A were identified by PCR amplification and denaturing high performance liquid chromatography analysis, with subsequent sequencing. Parental DNA was examined to ascertain the origin of the mutation. SCN1A mutations were identified in 11 of 14 patients with alleged vaccine encephalopathy; a diagnosis of a specific epilepsy syndrome was made in all 14 cases. Five mutations predicted truncation of the protein and six were missense in conserved regions of the molecule. In all nine cases where parental DNA was available the mutations arose de novo. Clinical-molecular correlation showed mutations in eight of eight cases with phenotypes of SMEI, in three of four cases with borderline SMEI, but not in two cases with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Cases of alleged vaccine encephalopathy could in fact be a genetically determined epileptic encephalopathy that arose de novo. These findings have important clinical implications for diagnosis and management of encephalopathy and, if confirmed in other cohorts, major societal implications for the general acceptance of vaccination.

Microdeletions involving theSCN1A gene may be common inSCN1A-mutation-negative SMEI patients

Severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI) or Dravet syndrome is a rare epilepsy syndrome. In 30 to 70% of SMEI patients, truncating and missense mutations in the neuronal voltage-gated sodium-channel alpha-subunit gene (SCN1A) have been identified. The majority of patients have truncating mutations that are predicted to be loss-of-function alleles. Because mutation detection studies use PCR-based sequencing or conformation sensitive gel electrophoresis (CSGE), microdeletions, which are also predicted to be loss-of-function alleles, can easily escape detection. We selected 11 SMEI patients with or without additional features who had no SCN1A mutation detectable with sequencing analysis. In addition, none of the patients was heterozygous for any of the SNPs in SCN1A, indicating that they were either homozygous for all SNPs or hemizygous due to a microdeletion of the gene. We subsequently analyzed these patients for the presence of microdeletions in SCN1A using a quantitative PCR method named multiplex amplicon quantification (MAQ), and observed three patients missing one copy of the SCN1A gene. All three microdeletions were confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). These findings demonstrate that a substantial percentage of SCN1A-mutation-negative SMEI patients with or without additional features carry a chromosomal microdeletion comprising the SCN1A gene and that haploinsufficiency of the SCN1A gene is a cause of SMEI.

A C‐terminal skeletal muscle sodium channel mutation associated with myotonia disrupts fast inactivation

Missense mutations in the skeletal muscle sodium channel alpha-subunit gene (SCN4A) are associated with a group of clinically overlapping diseases caused by alterations in the excitability of the sarcolemma. Sodium channel defects may increase excitability and cause myotonic stiffness or may render fibres transiently inexcitable to produce periodic paralysis. A patient with cold-aggravated myotonia did not harbour any of the common SCN4A mutations. We therefore screened all 24 exons by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography, followed by direct sequencing. Two novel missense changes were found with predicted amino acid substitutions: T323M in the DIS5-S6 loop and F1705I in the intracellular C-terminus. The functional impact of these substitutions was assessed by recording whole-cell Na+ currents from transiently transfected HEK293 cells. T323M currents were indistinguishable from wild-type (WT). Fast inactivation was impaired for F1705I channels, as demonstrated by an 8.6-mV rightwards shift in voltage dependence and a two-fold slowing in the rate of inactivation. Recovery from fast inactivation was not altered, nor was there an increase in the persistent current after a 50- ms depolarization. Activation and slow inactivation were not appreciably affected. These data suggest that T323M is a benign polymorphism, whereas F1705I results in fast inactivation defects, which are often observed for myotonia. This is the first example of a C-terminal mutation in SCN4A associated with human disease. Like the cardiac disorders (long QT syndrome type 3 or Brugada syndrome) and generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+) associated with C-terminal mutations in other NaV channels, the primary effect of F1705I was a partial disruption of fast inactivation.

The implications of genetic mutations in the sodium channel gene (SCN5A).

Mutations in sodium channel alpha-subunit gene (SCN5A) result in multiple arrhythmic syndromes, including long QT3 (LQT3), Brugada syndrome (BS), an inherited cardiac conduction defect, sudden unexpected nocturnal death syndrome (SUNDS) and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), constituting a spectrum of disease entities termed Na+ channelopathies. These diseases are allelic disorders, if not the same disease with variable penetrance and variable modifiers worldwide. Interestingly, death occurs during sleep in all of these disorders, suggesting a common mechanism. To date, mutational analyses have revealed about 103 distinct mutations in SCN5A, of which at least more than 30 mutations are associated with LQT3, whereas the rest of the mutations are affiliated with the remaining sodium channel disorders. The majority of these mutations are missense. However, other types such as deletions, insertions, frameshifts, nonsense and splice-donor errors have also been reported.

De novo SCN1A mutations are a major cause of severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy.

Severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI or Dravet syndrome) is a rare disorder occurring in young children often without a family history of a similar disorder. The earliest disease manifestations are usually fever-associated seizures. Later in life, patients display different types of afebrile seizures including myoclonic seizures. Arrest of psychomotor development occurs in the second year of life and most patients become ataxic. Patients are resistant to antiepileptic drug therapy. Recently, we described de novo mutations of the neuronal sodium channel alpha-subunit gene SCN1A in seven isolated SMEI patients. To investigate the contribution of SCN1A mutations to the etiology of SMEI, we examined nine additional SMEI patients. We observed eight coding and one noncoding mutation. In contrast to our previous study, most mutations are missense mutations clustering in the S4-S6 region of SCN1A. These findings demonstrate that de novo mutations in SCN1A are a major cause of isolated SMEI.

The sodium channel blocker RS100642 reverses down-regulation of the sodium channel alpha-subunit Na(v) 1.1 expression caused by transient ischemic brain injury in rats.

In this study we evaluated the expression of five sodium channel (NaCh) Alpha-subunit genes after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) in the rat and the effects of treatment with the NaCh blocker and experimental neuroprotective agent RS100642 as compared to the prototype NaCh blocker mexiletine. The expression of Na(v) 1.1, Na(v) 1.2, Na(v) 1.3, Na(v) 1.7, Na(v) 1.8 and the housekeeping gene beta-actin were studied in vehicle or drug-treated rats at 6, 24 and 48 h post-MCAo using real-time quantitative RT-PCR. RS100642 (1 mg/kg), mexiletine (10 mg/kg), or vehicle (1 ml/kg) was injected (i.v.) at 30 min, 2, 4, and 6 h post-injury. Following MCAo only the Na(v) 1.1 and Na(v) 1.2 genes were significantly down-regulated in the ipsilateral hemisphere of the injured brains. RS100642 treatment significantly reversed the down-regulation of Na(v) 1.1 (but not Na(v) 1.2) at 24-48 h post-injury. Mexiletine treatment, on the other hand, had no significant effect on the down-regulation of either gene. These findings demonstrate that treatment with a neuroprotective dose of RS100642 significantly reverses the down-regulation of Na(v) 1.1 caused by ischemic brain injury and suggests that RS100642 selectively targets the Na(v) 1.1 Alpha-subunit of the NaCh. Furthermore, our findings strengthen the hypothesis that ischemic injury may produce selective depletion of voltage-gated NaChs, and suggest that the Na(v) 1.1 NaCh Alpha-subunit may play a key role in the neuronal injury/recovery process.

The role of sodium channels in cell adhesion.

Voltage-gated sodium channels are unique in that they combine action potential conduction with cell adhesion. Mammalian sodium channels are heterotrimers, composed of a central, pore-forming alpha subunit and two auxiliary beta subunits. The alpha subunits are members of a large gene family containing the voltage-gated sodium, potassium, and calcium channels. Sodium channel alpha subunits form a gene subfamily with at least eleven members. Mutations in sodium channel alpha subunit genes have been linked to paroxysmal disorders such as epilepsy, long QT syndrome (LQT), and hyperkalemic periodic paralysis in humans, and motor endplate disease and cerebellar ataxia in mice. Three genes encode the sodium channel beta subunits with at least one alternative splice product. Unlike the pore-forming alpha subunits, the sodium channel beta subunits are not structurally related to beta subunits of calcium and potassium channels. Sodium channel beta subunits are multifunctional. They modulate channel gating and regulate the level of channel expression at the plasma membrane. We have shown that beta subunits also function as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) in terms of interaction with extracellular matrix molecules, regulation of cell migration, cellular aggregation, and interaction with the cytoskeleton. A mutation in SCN1B has been shown to cause GEFS+1 epilepsy in human families. We propose that the sodium channel signaling complex at nodes of Ranvier involves beta subunits as channel modulators as well as CAMs, other CAMs such as neurofascin and contactin, RPTPbeta, and extracellular matrix molecules such as tenascin. Finally, we explore other subunits of voltage-gated ion channels as potential CAM candidates.

Developmental regulation of alternative exon usage in the house fly Vssc1 sodium channel gene.

Sequence analysis of cDNA clones amplified by PCR from house fly ( Musca domestica L.) Vssc1 voltage-sensitive sodium channel alpha subunit transcript templates identified 11 putative alternatively spliced exons. Nine of these corresponded to the 7 optional exons (designated a, b, e, f, h, i, and j) and 2 mutually exclusive exons (designated c/d) identified previously in the orthologous para sodium channel alpha subunit genes of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila virilis, whereas two segments represented new mutually exclusive exons in Vssc1 (designated k/l) located in a region not previously identified as a site of alternative splicing in para. Diagnostic PCR assays on individual Vssc1 cDNA templates detected the presence or absence of each putative alternative exon in multiple partial cDNAs (42-96 individual clones per cDNA pool) from newly emerged first instar larvae, pupae, day 1 adult heads, and day 1 adult bodies. Exons h and i were present in all cDNA clones from all developmental stages. Exon d was also present in all clones from all developmental stages that encoded full-length amino acid sequences; however, 1 of 42 clones from adult head contained an exon c-like segment in which the coding sequence was terminated by a premature stop codon. In contrast, the frequencies of exons a, b, e, f, j, k, and l differed between developmental stages and adult anatomical regions. Analysis of the Vssc1 region containing alternative exons a, b, c/d, e, f, h, and i as a single amplified cDNA segment identified nine Vssc1 splice variants involving these exons. The splice variant containing exons a, d, h, and i was the most abundant form in all cDNA pools examined, but the observed patterns of splice variant expression were specific to each developmental stage and adult anatomical region. Our results document the strong conservation of alternative exon location and structure between the Vssc1 gene of the house fly and the para gene of D. melanogaster but identify marked differences in exon usage between these species.

Familial hypokalemic periodic paralysis

Recent genetic studies have identified mutations in the genes causative for familial hypokalemic periodic paralysis (F-HypoPP) . The major locus for F-HypoPP is the skeletal muscle calcium channel alpha(1S) subunit (CACNA1S), and two predominant missense mutations were found in the same gene. A small part of other F-HypoPP families has been identified to result from the missense mutations found in the skeletal muscle sodium channel alpha subunit (SCN4A) gene. We analyzed Japanese hypokalemic periodic paralysis patients (familial, sporadic and thyrotoxic), and detected the Arg 528His mutation in two F-HypoPP families. Thus F-HypoPP is related to the functional deficiency of the skeletal muscle ion-channels.

Enhanced inactivation and acceleration of activation of the sodium channel associated with epilepsy in man.

Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures-plus (GEFS+) is a benign Mendelian syndrome characterized by childhood-onset febrile and afebrile seizures. Three point mutations within two voltage-gated sodium channel genes have been identified so far: in GEFS+ type 1 a mutation in the beta1-subunit gene SCN1B, and in GEFS+ type 2 two mutations within the neuronal alpha-subunit gene SCN1A. Functional expression of the SCN1B and one of the SCN1A mutations revealed defects in fast channel inactivation which are in line with previous findings on myotonia causing mutations in SCN4A, the skeletal muscle sodium channel alpha-subunit gene, all showing an impaired fast inactivation. We now studied the second GEFS+ mutation (T875M in SCN1A), using the highly homologous SCN4A gene (mutation T685M). Unexpectedly, the experiments revealed a pronounced enhancement of both fast and slow inactivation and a defect of channel activation for T685M compared to wild-type channels. Steady-state fast and slow inactivation curves were shifted in the hyperpolarizing direction, entry into slow inactivation was threefold accelerated, recovery from slow inactivation was slowed by threefold and the time course of activation was slightly but significantly accelerated. In contrast to other disease-causing mutations in SCN1A, SCN1B and SCN4A, the only mechanism that could explain hyperexcitability of the cell membrane would be the acceleration of activation. Because the enhancement of slow inactivation was the most obvious alteration in gating found for T685M, this might be the disease-causing mechanism for that mutation. In this case, the occurrence of epileptic seizures could be explained by a decrease of excitability of inhibitory neurons.