Soda-lime Glass Substrates Research Articles

Fluorine-Doped Tin Oxide Thin Films with High Surface Conductance and Low Transparency for Boosting Performance in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Applications

Transparent conductive oxide films, like fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), are needed for electrochemical devices. FTO films are attractive due to their cost-effectiveness and high-temperature tolerance. Generally, solar cell fabrication requires high transmittance and low-conductivity FTOs. However, achieving both simultaneously poses a fundamental challenge. This study investigates the impact of FTO layer thickness, sheet resistance, transparency, and film morphology on optimizing the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. To achieve this, a precursor solution containing SnCl4·5H2O and NH4F in isopropanol is sprayed onto a soda-lime glass substrate at 500 °C to form FTO films. The film thickness is varied by repeating the spray cycles. By increasing the number of spray cycles, the sheet resistance of the FTO film improves to ∼1.20 Ω □–1 with the expense of transmittance. The achieved very low sheet resistance of ∼1 Ω □–1 (∼3.54 × 10–4) Ω cm resistivity for the FTO film confirms the promise of this sequential spray pyrolysis technique in preparing highly conductive inert electrodes for various applications. Furthermore, DSCs with low transparency and sheet resistance showed higher-energy conversion efficiencies, challenging the current prerequisite of the requirement of high transmittance. The best efficiency (5.14%) is achieved with FTO films having a 34.2% transmittance and a 3.27 Ω □–1 sheet resistance, outperforming standard FTO films (4.74%) with a 10 Ω □–1 sheet resistance and an ∼83% transmittance. The results indicate that the transparency of FTO is not a dominant factor and carefully controlled light scattering and electrical properties in translucent FTO films would lead to the realization of dye-sensitized solar cells that deliver superior efficiency.

Effects of additive and substrate on hydrogen sensing performances of sol-gel derived platinum doped tungsten trioxide gasochromic films

Tungsten trioxide is one of the most popular gasochromic materials whose color substantially changes upon exposure to hydrogen gas and is a key material for realizing various optical hydrogen gas sensors. However, it is still required to improve ease of film forming capability and manufacturing, which are also related to gasochromic performance. In the present study, platinum-doped tungsten trioxide (Pt/WO3) films were immobilized onto glass substrates by a sol-gel method, where acetylene-glycol surfactant (Surfynol 465) was investigated as a possible effective additive for the precursor solution. In the hydrogen exposure tests, the films fabricated on a fused-silica substrate and calcined at temperatures less than 350 °C showed weak but clear response characteristics and a high recovery rate because the Surfynol 465 surfactant also functioned as an effective reductant for the Pt precursor solution. The metallic state of Pt in the film calcined at low temperatures was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic analysis. However, the gasochromic performance was completely lost for the film fabricated on a soda-lime glass substrate and calcined at 500 °C. The results suggested that the poisoning effect is attributable to contamination of the film by sodium ions, which can leak from the glass substrate. The film prepared at a low calcination temperature of 350 °C did not suffer severe poisoning and responded to hydrogen gas.

A Car Logo Design-Inspired CPW-Fed Semitransparent Antenna for Vehicular Applications

In this paper, a quad-port multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) semitransparent antenna is designed for automotive applications. The transparent soda lime glass substrate is used in the prototype antenna for windshield applications, and the radiator is nontransparent copper metal. The unit cell radiator of the MIMO antenna is similar to the “NISSAN automobile-like” logo. The proposed MIMO antenna has a −10 dB impedance bandwidth of 3.4 to 11 GHz. The edge-to-edge distance between the elements in the MIMO configuration is 6 mm. The antenna elements are perpendicularly oriented to offer dual (horizontal and vertical) polarization, which aids in providing better isolation and good signal reception in all directions. The isolation between the resonating elements is greater than 15 dB without the use of any decoupling structure. The diversity metrics are examined in order to gain a better understanding of the MIMO antenna performance. The envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) is less than 0.01, diversity gain (DG) is greater than 9.98 dB, and the total active reflection coefficient (TARC) and channel capacity loss (CCL) are less than −10 dB and 0.07 bits/s/Hz, respectively. The quad-port MIMO antenna offers transparency of 52.26% over the entire area. The proposed antenna could be suitable for automotive applications such as intelligent transportation systems (ITS), vehicular communications, and the automatic vehicle identifier (AVI).

Rapid Thermal Annealing Process Toward Enhancement of ITO Thin Films

Indium tin oxide (ITO) thin films with 100 nm thickness were successfully deposited on soda-lime glass substrates by metal oxide electron beam evaporation at room temperature. The deposited films were post annealed via rapid thermal processor (RTP) in vacuum environment at 400 to 550 °C. All deposited ITO thin films were studied on the structural, electrical, and optical properties. Results showed that the post annealing treatment by RTP improved the crystallinity, increased crystallite size, and increased surface roughness values. Higher RTP post annealing temperature also enhanced the electrical performance that led to higher transmittance of ITO thin films.

Enhancement of grain growth in Cu2SnS3 thin films prepared by the addition of Au and fabrication of solar cells using Au-added CTS thin films

Cu2SnS3 (CTS), obtained by depositing Au on an Sn/Cu metal stacked precursor fabricated by electron beam deposition and sulfurization, was investigated. In thin films obtained by sulfurization at 560 °C of the precursor with SLG/Mo/Sn/Cu/Au/NaF structures fabricated on Soda lime glass substrates containing alkali metals, a significant increase in the CTS grain size was observed in the Au deposition thickness range of 5–25 nm. By contrast, no crystal growth was observed in thin films with a precursor without an NaF layer fabricated using alkali-free glass (EAGLE XG), regardless of the thickness of the Au-deposited film. Therefore, appropriate amounts of Au and Na promote the crystal growth of CTS. In addition, at the sulfurization temperature of 570 °C, the crystal grains were larger than those of the thin film fabricated at 560 °C. In the fabricated CTS thin-film solar cells, with a sulfurization temperature of 570 °C and an Au deposition thickness of 10 nm, open circuit voltage of 0.261 V, short circuit current density of 25.4 mA cm−2, fill factor of 0.425, and a power conversion efficiency of 2.82% were obtained.

Photoelectrochemical and Photovoltaic Performance of As-deposited Ink-based CuInS2 Heterojunction Thin Film

In this report, we demonstrate low-temperature ink-based fabrication of CuInS2-based photoelectrodes for hydrogen production capable of producing photocurrent densities as high as 8.8 mA.cm−2. In this process, molecular ink made of metal chlorides and thiourea dissolved in methanol was spin coated onto Mo-coated soda lime glass substrates. Samples were then placed on a hot plate (sample surface temperature: 250 °C) to induce CuInS2 formation and remove the solvent and by-products. No further processing, such as high temperature sulfurization, was performed. The CuInS2 films were then integrated as photocathode for hydrogen evolution by photoelectrodeposition of Pt nanoparticles. Photocurrent density of 0.4 mA.cm−2 at 0 V vs. RHE was detected from such electrodes. However, samples coated with CdS/ZnO/ITO overlayers forming heterojunction prior to Pt deposition exhibited significant improvement of the photocurrent density, reaching 8.8 mA.cm−2 at 0 V vs. RHE, highlighting the improved charge transfer by the p-n junction formed at the CuInS2/CdS interface. The charge transfer resistance of the CuInS2/CdS/ZnO/ITO-Pt photoelectrode was almost 5 times lower than that of the CuInS2-Pt photoelectrode as revealed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis. In addition, the onset potential was shifted by ca. 0.45 V toward the anodic direction, reaching 0.75 V vs. RHE. Solar cell made of identical structure (Mo/CuInS2/CdS/ZnO/ITO) showed power conversion efficiency of 2.1% with short-circuit photocurrent density and open circuit voltage of 7.4 mA.cm−2 and 820 mV, respectively.

Characteristics of thin Sb2Se3 films obtained by the chemical molecular beam deposition method for thin-film solar cells

Sb2Se3 films were obtained by chemical molecular beam deposition on soda-lime glass substrates. As a source material, 99.999% purity semiconductor Sb2Se3 pieces were used. Their evaporation and the substrate temperature were maintained at 830 °C÷1000 °C and 500 °C, respectively. Using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, and Raman scattering, the influence of the temperature of the source of the binary compound Sb2Se3 on the chemical composition, morphology, and structure of the synthesized films of Sb2Se3 films was studied. It is observed that the films have a crystalline (orthorhombic) structure with compactly located crystallites having the form of rods with an average size: l = 5÷10 µm (length) and d = 1÷2 µm (diameter). An analysis of the dependency functions (αhν)2 = f(hν) showed that the Sb2Se3 films obtained at temperatures Тsource=900 °C and Тsource=840 °C have direct transitions with an optical band gap Еg=1.04 eV and Еg=1.12 eV, respectively. The electrical conductivity of the films, changed within 1.03·10−5÷4.13·10−5 (Om·cm)−1 depending on the ratio of Sb/Se atomic concentration.

Optically Transparent MIMO Antenna with Polarization Diversity

An Optically transparent UWB antenna with polarization diversity for the use of automotive communications is presented in this paper. The novel two element antenna operates at the frequency range of 2.5-8 GHz with dimension 45×45 mm2 and peak gain 1.2 dBi. Antenna elements are placed orthogonally to achieve polarisation diversity. The proposed antenna is placed on a soda lime glass substrate which has a permittivity of 7.3 and thickness of 2.2 mm. The radiator of the antenna is made of FTO with sheet resistance 6 Ω/sq. The Diversity gain of the proposed antenna is greater than 9.9 and ECC value is lesser than 0.02 for the frequency range of 3-8 GHz. The isolation between the antenna elements is more than 15 dB without any complex decoupling structures between them.

Effect of thickness on structural, optical, and optoelectrical properties of sprayed CuInSnS4 thin films as a new absorber layer for solar cells

Thin CuInSnS4 films, CITS of different thicknesses have been synthesized by spray pyrolysis method for the first time. These films have been deposited on pre-cleaned soda-lime glass substrates. X-ray diffraction, XRD, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, EDX, and field-emission-scanning electron microscope techniques have been utilized to characterize these CITS films. XRD-studies affirmed the polycrystalline nature of films, in addition EDX-analysis of films proves that they are stoichiometric films. Spectrophotometric studies indicate that the optical bandgap energy of films decreased from 1.88eV to 1.63eV and arose from direct allowed transitions; on contrary, the Urbach energy increases from 58 meV to 73 meV as film thickness increases. Increasing the thickness also leads to increase the absorption coefficient, extinction coefficient, and refractive index of films. Dielectric constants, and optical and electrical conductivities, along with the dispersion energies have been estimated and discussed. The dispersion energy increased (13.29eV–16.76eV), while the oscillator energy decraeses (2.98eV–2.53eV). Some linear and nonlinear optical parameters of films have been also investigated. Hot probe procedure was employed to check the semiconductor type of CuInSnS4 layers, which reveals that films have p-type conductivity. Obtained findings demonstrate that CuInSnS4 layers can be utilized as a new absorber layer for solar cells.

Deposition of stoichiometry – tailored amorphous Cu-S thin films by MOCVD technique

ABSTRACT Deposition technique and associated deposition parameters play significant roles in determining the stoichiometry of thin films, and consequently, their properties. Herein, Cu-S thin films were deposited on a sodalime glass substrate via metal organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) at temperatures between 350 and 450°C using a single solid source precursor. The deposited Cu-S films were characterized using Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV–visible spectrophotometry, and four-point probe technique. RBS characterization revealed that the films are non-stoichiometry while thickness increased from 480 to 655 nm as deposition temperature increased. SEM revealed micrographs that are temperature-dependent. A direct band gap value between 2.75 and 3.80 eV was obtained as the deposition temperature increased. Electrical characterization showed ohmic characteristics in which, resistivity decreased from 18.50 × 10−3 Ωcm to 8.20 × 10−3 Ωcm as deposition temperature increased.

Alkali metals (Na, K) doped ZnO/CuO composite films for real-time tracking of sweat loss

Real-time sweat rate monitoring provides clinically proper directives for preventive medicine and disease diagnosis. This research represents an attempt to develop a semiconductor-based nanostructured sensor for monitoring sweat rate using a ZnO/CuO composite thin film. A series of alkali metals (sodium, Na; potassium, K) doped ZnO/CuO composite samples were fabricated on soda lime glass substrates by the Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction method. The sweat solution sensing response characterization exhibited promising sensing behavior under room conditions. The Na- and K-doped samples showed a pronounced response at low and high concentrations of the sweat solution. While the undoped composite film responds to the high concentration sweat solution (117.90 mM) with a sensitivity of 4.10, this value increases up to 9.15 for the 2.0% Na-doped samples. In addition, the response time shortens from 6 s to 4 s for 2.0% Na substitutions. Pristine, 2.0% Na and 2.0% K-substituted ZnO/CuO composites exhibit great linearity with linear regression ranges, R2, of 0.958, 0.971, and 0.984, respectively. We concluded that doping of ZnO/CuO composites with alkali metals Na and K is a good candidate for real-time tracking of sweat loss as biological evidence.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS FOR A NANO-CRYSTALLINE FILM (ZnS) BY AEROSOL SPRAY PYROLYSIS TECHNIQUE

Nano thin film materials play an indispensable role in modern electronics and other field of material sciences especially in a photovoltaic technology. The scope of this research is to grow Zinc Sulphide (ZnS) thin film and characterize structurally to understand the benefits of the study choosing chemical deposition method (The aerosol spray pyrolysis), the chemical combination analysis and the annealing temperature. Specifically on the film strength and its applications. In the light of this work, Nano crystalline ZnS thin films was grown by carefully dissolving 1.48g of Zinc Acetate (Zn(CH3CO2)2) in 15ml of a distilled water (H2O), Followed by the deposition of 50, 5, and 30ml of acetone (CH3COCH3), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and ethanol (C2H6O) to the solution respectively, all in molar concentration of 0.1 M per ml. The solution was allowed to spray for 10 minutes on a soda lime glass substrate (SLG) at 300oC. The process was repeated for the sample annealed at 300oC and 400oC under Nitrogen gas (N2) environment for 60 minutes. The X-ray diffraction pattern of all the films deposited shows a cubic crystal type with mean crystallite size in the range 0.35nm as deposited, 0.4179 nm and 0.44nm at 300oC and 400oC annealing temperature respectively. Patterns of the sprayed film after performing the phase analysis reveal peaks corresponding to the (111) planes of reflection, which indicate the suitability of the deposition process and chemical combination. Furthermore, it is also concluded that the strength of the material depends on the annealing and substrate temperature.

Zinc Oxide Films Fabricated via Sol-Gel Method and Dip-Coating Technique-Effect of Sol Aging on Optical Properties, Morphology and Photocatalytic Activity.

Zinc oxide layers on soda-lime glass substrates were fabricated using the sol-gel method and the dip-coating technique. Zinc acetate dihydrate was applied as the precursor, while diethanolamine as the stabilizing agent. This study aimed to determine what effect has the duration of the sol aging process on the properties of fabricated ZnO films. Investigations were carried out with the sol that was aged during the period from 2 to 64 days. The sol was studied using the dynamic light scattering method to determine its distribution of molecule size. The properties of ZnO layers were studied using the following methods: scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, transmission and reflection spectroscopy in the UV-Vis range, and the goniometric method for determination of the water contact angle. Furthermore, photocatalytic properties of ZnO layers were studied by the observation and quantification of the methylene blue dye degradation in an aqueous solution under UV illumination. Our studies showed that ZnO layers have grain structure, and their physical-chemical properties depend on the duration of aging. The strongest photocatalytic activity was observed for layers produced from the sol that was aged over 30 days. These layers have also the greatest porosity (37.1%) and the largest water contact angle (68.53°). Our studies have also shown that there are two absorption bands in studied ZnO layers, and values of optical energy band gaps determined from positions of maxima in reflectance characteristics are equal to those determined using the Tauc method. Optical energy band gaps of the ZnO layer fabricated from the sol aged over 30 days are EgI = 4.485 eV and EgII = 3.300 eV for the first and second bands, respectively. This layer also showed the highest photocatalytic activity, causing the pollution to degrade 79.5% after 120 min of UV irradiation. We believe that ZnO layers presented here, thanks to their attractive photocatalytic properties, may find application in environmental protection for the degradation of organic pollutants.

High Energy X-Ray Dosimetry Using (ZnO)0.2(TeO2)0.8 Thin Filmbased Real-time X-Ray Sensor

This study reports the dosimetric response of a (ZnO)0.2(TeO2)0.8 thin film sensor irradiated with high-energy X-ray radiation at various doses. The spray pyrolysis method was used for the film deposition on soda-lime glass substrate using zinc acetate dehydrate and tellurium dioxide powder as the starting precursors. The structural and morphological properties of the film were determined. The I-V characteristics measurements were performed during irradiation with a 6 MV X-ray beam from a Linac. The results revealed that the XRD pattern of the AS-deposited thin film is non-crystalline (amorphous) in nature. The FESEM image shows the non-uniform shape of nanoparticles agglomerated separately, and the EDX spectrum shows the presence of Te, Zn, and O in the film. The I-V characteristics measurements indicate that the current density increases linearly with X-ray doses (0-250 cGy) for all applied voltages (1-6 V). The sensitivity of the thin film sensor has been found to be in the range of 0.37-0.94 mA/cm2 /Gy. The current-voltage measurement test for fading normalised in percentage to day 0 was found in the order of day 0 > day 15 > day 30 > day 1 > day 2. These results are expected to be beneficial for fabricating cheap and practical X-ray sensors.

A comparison of antibacterial activity in dark-UV light in perspective of surface and structural properties of spray pyrolysis grown Cu doped Cr2O3 thin films

Thin films of Cr2O3 and Cu doped Cr2O3 thin films were prepared using the spray pyrolysis technique with different Cu/Cr ratios. Precursor solution of 0.2 M was sprayed on a pre-heated (≈ 400 °C) soda lime glass substrate using air as the carrier gas. XRD analysis confirmed polycrystalline nature of the films with rhombohedral structure. Crystallite size and lattice strain have been estimated using Williamson-Hall method. These films were porous and presented a rough morphology and showed a strong signature on the presence of vibrational Cr-O bonding. The solid-liquid surface contact angle measurements revealed a large contact angle which is indicative of reduced surface energy. Vickers hardness measurement reveals that Cr2O3 thin film with 2% Cu/Cr ratio have high hardness value of 903 HV (0.2 kgf). The antibacterial activity of the films was investigated against two gram-positive (Bacillus Subtilus and Bacillus Meurellus) and two gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia Coli and Acetobacter Rhizopherensis). A comparison was established both under dark and UVA light in terms of structural properties of the films. Antibacterial activity was significantly enhanced with the increase in Cu/Cr ratio. Interestingly, the UVA light further facilitated to boost the antibacterial effect against both types of bacteria. A good correlation was found between the structural parameters and the zone of inhibition.

Effect of substrate surface on the wide bandgap SnO2 thin films grown by spin coating

Tin (IV) oxide (SnO2) sols have been synthesized from SnCl2·2H2O precursor solution by applying two different processing conditions. The prepared sols were then deposited on UV-Ozone-treated quartz and soda lime glass (SLG) substrates by spin coating. The as-synthesized film was soft baked at about 100 °C for 10 min. This process was repeated 5 times to get a compact film, followed by air annealing at 250 °C for 2 h. The pristine and annealed films were characterized by UV–Vis–NIR spectroscopy, Grazing Incident X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD), and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM). The effect of the substrate surface was investigated by measuring the contact angles with De-Ionized (DI) water. UV-Ozone treatment of substrate provides a cleaner surface to grow a homogeneous film. The electrical resistivity of annealed thin films was carried out by a four-point collinear probe employing the current reversal technique and found in the range of ~ 2 × 103 to 3 × 103 Ω·cm. Film thickness was found in the range of ~ 137–285 nm, measured by a stylus profilometer. UV–Vis–NIR transmission data revealed that all the thin-film samples showed maximum (82–89) % transmission in the visible range. The optical bandgap of the thin films was estimated to be ~ 3.75–4.00 eV and ~ 3.78–4.35 eV for the films grown on SLG and quartz substrates, respectively.

Influence of Exposure Parameters on Nanoliquid-Assisted Glass Drilling Process Using CO2 Laser

Liquid-assisted laser processing (LALP) is implemented using a 10.6 μm continuous-wave (CW) CO2 laser to drill holes in 1.1 mm thick soda-lime glass substrates fully immersed in a nanoliquid bath. The nanoliquid bath consisted of de-ionized water and carbon nano-particles (CNPs) of different wt.%. The study focuses on the influence of exposure time (TE, [s]), laser beam power (P, [W]) and number of pulses (NP) on resulting geometrical features, namely, crack length (CL, [mm]), inlet diameter (DINLET, [mm]) and exit diameter (DEXIT, [mm]). The processed samples were characterized using an optical microscope. Findings show that LALP with investigated ranges of control parameters TE (0.5–1.5 s), P (20–40 W) and NP (1–6 pulses) led to successful production of drilled holes having CL range (0.141 to 0.428 mm), DINLET range (0.406 to 1.452 mm) and DEXIT range (0.247 to 1.039 mm). It was concluded that increasing TE alone leads to increasing CL, DINLET and DEXIT, while keeping a good balance among the control parameters, especially TE and NP, will result in reduced CL values. Moreover, process statistical models were developed using statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA). These models can be used to further understand and control the process within the investigated ranges of control and response parameters.

Influence of Hf precursor concentration on various properties of sol-gel based spin coated HfO2 thin films

Rigorous studies on hafnium oxide (HfO2) thin films are crucial as it is regarded as the ideal insulating material, for the replacement of silicon dioxide (SiO2) dielectric material, widely used in electronic industry. HfO2 is also a promising material towards energy storage capabilities, as well as piezoelectric applications. In this direction we have studied HfO2 films synthesized from various precursor concentration using sol-gel processed spin coating method. Films were deposited on soda-lime glass substrates and were annealed at 500 °C. Subsequently optical, structural, morphological and chemical properties of the grown films were studied. XRD and Raman studies have confirmed the existence of monoclinic phase in all the films. Films with 0.1 M Hf sol-concentration exhibited comparatively higher grain size and better crystallinity compared to the films grown with other molarities. Optical studies have revealed the transparency of the films in the wavelength range of 300–1100 nm. The surface of the films exhibited low roughness values as observed from AFM studies. The film surface with fine spherical grains has been observed from the FESEM studies. Presence of desired elements such as Oxygen and Hafnium have been confirmed using EDS-elemental mapping. Cross-sectional morphology has been tried to check the thickness of the sample. From XPS studies hafnium and oxygen associated states has been extensively studied. The results of the aforementioned studies suggest that precursor concentration play a significant role in deciding the properties of the films.

Investigation of photocatalytic activity (under visible light) of ultrathin CZTS films produced in different thicknesses by PLD method

Cu2ZnSnS4 (CZTS) thin films in 61 nm, 112 nm, 242 nm and 313 nm thickness which have been produced by Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) on Soda Lime Glass substrates as a function of the number of laser pulses. As the deposition of ablated material has been augmented with increasing number of laser pulses, it has been noticed that CZTS-ultrathin film’s thicknesses and particle sizes have been increased, their crystalline structures have been improved. Larger particles limit the transmission of light and cause thin films to absorb photons. The band gaps of CZTS (61 nm), CZTS (112 nm), CZTS (242 nm) and CZTS (313 nm) thin film which have been determined to be 1.95 eV, 1.90 eV, 1.50 eV and 1.45 eV, respectively. CZTS (61 nm) ultrathin film with the thinnest one among the thin films produced in this work, which is Cu and S poor but Sn and Zn rich. By increasing the thickness of the film, it has been observed that the amount of Cu and S were increased, and the ratio of Sn and Zn were decreased. In addition, it has been systematically investigated that the photocatalytic activity of the ultra-thin CZTS films coated in different thicknesses by PLD method. Among all the photocatalysts, the CZTS (in 242 nm thickness) photocatalyst has exhibited the highest photocatalytic performance, managing to remove 96.1% of methylene blue (MB) in 240 min. Furthermore, the mechanism that performs photocatalysis has been investigated by scavenger experiments, and it was observed that \({}^{ \cdot }O_{2}^{ - }\) radical ions have an important role in the reaction, while holes have little effect.

Performance Evaluation of an Optically Transparent Microstrip Patch Antenna for 5G Applications Using ITO and Sodalime Glass Substrate

Performance Evaluation of an Optically Transparent Microstrip Patch Antenna for 5G Applications Using ITO and Sodalime Glass Substrate