Social Equilibrium Research Articles

Necessary Luxuries: Books, Literature, and the Culture of Consumption in Germany, 1770–1815 by Matt Erlin

Reviewed by: Necessary Luxuries: Books, Literature, and the Culture of Consumption in Germany, 1770–1815 by Matt Erlin Arnd Bohm Matt Erlin, Necessary Luxuries: Books, Literature, and the Culture of Consumption in Germany, 1770–1815. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP and Cornell University Library, 2014. 264 pp. For anyone who has wondered why German literature is not much fun, this book yields suggestive hints, even though that is not the author’s declared aim. The primary concern is with the “question of whether artistic pursuits have any demonstrable value for society at all” (1). The main title’s witty contradiction underscores the debate about whether literature was a productive contribution to society or whether it was a frivolity contributing to wasteful consumption of luxury goods. The subtitle of this well-written book clearly announces the topic: “Books, Literature, and the Culture of Consumption in Germany, 1770–1815.” The term “Germany” follows popular convention; the dates bracket the turn of the century and highlight the decades when the debates were particularly intense. The references to books and literature do not obscure the fact that this is a cultural studies project, aligning itself with, among others, Karin Wurst’s Fabricating Pleasure: Fashion, Entertainment and Cultural Consumption in Germany, 1780–1830 (2005) and Daniel Purdy’s The Tyranny of Elegance: Consumer Cosmopolitanism in the Era of Goethe (1998), both of which Erlin cites frequently and approvingly. The introduction and the first three chapters develop the outlines of the contemporary, primarily but not exclusively German, discourses on luxury. The rise in the consumption of goods beyond the necessities of life awakened many anxieties and criticisms, especially on the part of philosophers and political economists. Erlin does a good job of presenting the relevant ideas by examining figures like Ferdinand Friedrich Pfeiffer (Probschrift von dem Luxus, 1779), Joseph Sonnenfels, Christoph Meiners, and Isaak Iselin, many of whom are hardly known to students of literature. Chapter 2 is a foray into material culture, concentrating on the production of extravagant editions of books, such as Wieland’s Musarion published in Vienna in 1808. High-quality paper, typesetting, and binding underscored that books could [End Page 291] become luxury commodities, giving concrete ties to the aesthetic issues. Oddly enough, however, the copies of Musarion were destined not for the market but to be given as gifts to win favor for the publisher. Chapter 3 turns to the debates about the rage for reading at the end of the eighteenth century and the dangers it was thought to pose for the reader’s mental and social equilibrium. The luxury of reading was seen as a threat to the hierarchical order of society and to the psychic stability of individuals. Against this background Erlin turns to the examination of specific texts. All are prose works; neither poetry nor dramas are considered. As might be expected, the works have been selected because they show influences of the discussions about books and luxury consumption. In chapter 4, Campe’s Robinson der Jüngere and Wieland’s Der goldne Spiegel, two works of the Enlightenment, are compared as “key sites for establishing a category of what constitutes beneficial luxury” (103). Both works emphasized that texts should give priority to utility, to teaching readers positive values, even if this meant subordinating pleasure to giving instruction. Three chapters are dedicated respectively to Moritz’s Anton Reiser, Novalis’s Heinrich von Ofterdingen, and Goethe’s Wahlverwandtschaften. Gradually it becomes apparent that it is not luxury as such that is at stake but rather that the ultimate context is the rise of modern consumerism or consumer capitalism, as when Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse are invoked in the instance of Anton Reiser. The narrowing (or expanding) to the context of capitalism as the target of Erlin’s study is a bit at odds with his refusal to undertake a rigorous Marxian analysis. Only in the chapter on luxury editions are any statistics quoted (63–64). The turn to the concept of the commodity and to commodification relies on readings of the symbolic economy, as in Wahlverwandschaften, where the novel “can be seen to signal the historical moment at which the traditional discourse of luxury as entropy becomes inextricably...

Karakteristik Dakwah Salafiyah

Salafisme has long been developing into differentiation and divergence based on different interpretation and understanding on the practices of Salaf generation. Every stream of dakwah movement claims to follow salafi way of it’s own interpretation. This study aims at portraying one of salafi understanding and it’s salafi dakwah as a result. The resource of this study is Syaikh Muhammad al- Gazālī who is supposed to bear objective, original views and understanding on Salafism and salafi dakwah. The study shows that, since prophetic era, the first core character of of Salafism has been criticism so that salafi dakwah is not other than critical dakwah against wrong ways of dakwah and worse condition of the target umma. The second core has been constructivism, so that salafi dakwah has not been other than constructive dakwah that persue constructive efforts in building the umma consciousness. The last core has been moderation, so that salafi dakwah has not been other than moderate dakwah that promotes social equilibrium and justice.

Understanding Conformity: An Experimental Investigation

Some theories of conformity hold that social equilibrium either standardizes inferences or promotes a shared understanding of conventions and norms among individuals with fixed heterogeneous preferences (belief mechanisms). Others depict tastes as fluid and hence subject to social influences (preference mechanisms). Belief mechanisms dominate discussions of conformity within economics, but preference mechanisms receive significant attention in other social sciences. This paper seeks to determine whether conformity is attributable to belief mechanisms or preference mechanisms by exploiting their distinctive implications for the process of convergence. Laboratory experiments suggest that economists have focused too narrowly on explanations for conformity involving belief mechanisms.

Discriminatory Transactions and Unequal Interactions Among Nation-States Around the World

This paper uses five situations to study discriminatory transactions and unequal interactions among nation-states around the world. The five situations are: the brain drain from developing to developed countries, transfer of wealth from poor to rich economies, world tourists flocking to more advanced societies, discriminatory placement of labor by race, national origin, and system of political economy, and unequal transactions in international trade. Each situation is described and analyzed in five standard sections. “The Particular” presents the situation based on the observation and experience by a well-educated middle-class working professional named “Alibaba.” “The Discriminator” focuses on discriminators and their acts of discrimination whereas “The Victim” draws attention to victimizations suffered by individuals or organizations under the situation. “The Compromise” presents both sides and their respective perspective to see how the situation, problematic though, sustains itself as part of social equilibrium on the world stage. Finally, “the Universal” attempts to uncover and learn from the situation something general and significant, sociologically or otherwise.

Aspects of Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Education in Romania

Abstract In any economy, entrepreneurs have a major role in ensuring economic, financial and social equilibrium and this effort must be accompanied by effective public policies. In this respect it is important to assess the entrepreneurs’ perception on the factors that support or impede their priorities and interests. These priorities refer to financing facilities, consistency of the legal system, society's perception of private initiative, bureaucracy, rigor, predictability and transparency of fiscal measures etc. The public authorities and entrepreneurs (by the own organization) must harmonize their interests. The difference is that the authorities are obliged by law to harmonize their interests and entrepreneurs are forced to do it, if not - they disappear. For example, the interest of entrepreneurs to pay smaller taxes is justified to some extent, but public authorities must ensure balance on the one hand, between those who pay and consumers of public financial resources on the other. Public authorities are not a given, they have the purpose to provide public services to ensure a balance between the needs of all parties in society: entrepreneurs, employees, socially assisted etc. In relation to entrepreneurs, they must follow the other parties (e.g. employees) to be less affected as the interests of entrepreneurs, if they conflict.

Recursive utility, increasing impatience and capital deepening: F.A. Hayek's ‘utility analysis and interest’

This paper argues that F.A. Hayek anticipated the notion of ‘recursive utility’ and analytically reconstructs his informal exposition of the optimal saving process. The scope of analysis is restricted to Hayek's largely unrecognised contribution in Utility Analysis and Interest in 1936, restated as chapters 17 and 18 in The Pure Theory of Capital, first published in 1941. It is shown that Hayek characterised efficient dynamic choice as an infinite series of two-period optimality conditions by transforming an infinite-horizon optimisation problem into a perpetual confrontation of current and prospective utility, that he hinted at the axiomatic base of stationary and weakly separable dynamic preferences, and that he endogenised the subjective discount rate to substantiate his claim that the interest-rate path in a perfect-foresight equilibrium is unidirectionally determined by the marginal productivity of investment (and not by thrift). Hayek's vision of dynamic social efficiency and dynamic equilibrium is completely characterised.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE ISLAMIC FACTOR ON THE LANDMARKS OF ABAZA SOCIETY IN RUSSIA

Abaza people, being a part of Adyghe-Abkhaz ethnic group, live in the Northwest Caucasus. In the second half of the XIX century there was a relocation of a large group of Abaza to the territory of the Ottoman Empire; an important cause of migration was the religious factor. The best preserved Abaza diaspora today is living in Turkey. Compact, ethnically homogeneous settlements of Abaza allowed preserving their language and traditional culture up to the present time; the Islamic factor played a positive role in the consolidation of the overseas Abaza community, though, to some extent, it has led to the phenomenon of a divided nation. Speaking about religious life in the Soviet period Abaza from North Caucasus were experiencing the same difficulties as the entire population of the country, but Islam was still the one of the signs of national identity. In the post-Soviet period there was a large-scale appeal to Islam; Islam became a positive factor for the consolidation of the people, maintaining social equilibrium in Abaza community. Modern trends in the development of Abaza community allow us to make the assumption that the position and role of Islam will be strengthened. In the current official policy of Turkey, Islam is becoming increasingly important reference point in social development. It is safe to say that communication between Russian and Turkish Abaza communities will continue to develop and in the future it will lead to further strengthening of the position of Islam and the influence of the Islamic factor in the many spheres of Abaza life in Russia.

Which Has Stronger Impacts on Regional Segregation: Industrial Agglomeration or Ethnolinguistic Clustering?

We investigate how regional segregation patterns are affected by industrial agglomeration and ethnic clustering, by adding the externality of ethnicity to the model of agglomeration and trade proposed by Ottaviano et al. (2002. Agglomeration and trade revisited, International Economic Review, 43, 409–436). We show that ethnic segregation patterns are persistent, while ethnic mixing distribution appears only when trade costs are intermediate and ethnicity clustering preferences are less intense. Further, discrepancies of the social optimum and equilibrium are caused because the social optimum is less sensitive to a change in trade costs, when the population of farmers (immobile factors affecting ethnicity utilities) is sufficiently large.

The Religious Cults of the Albanian Faith during the Early 20th Century

During the early twentieth century, Albania was visited by various British and American people who were eager to know about the curious features of this little country’s particular life. They had heard of it in their homeland and chose to trace a reality that was much different from the one they were used to. The materials they wrote and published, constitute a reliable source of information, whose analysis from the modern perception draws a picture of the life almost a century ago. This paper aims to describe the particular context of the relation that Albanian people had created with God and the way the religious life was shaped through the traditional rituals of the country. A few of the arguments that will be analyzed are: the way the religious faith was integrated in the daily activities, the religious tolerance in the state policies and the way it was reflected in the life context, religious attitudes due to the historical development of the past centuries, the influence of the new entries of the ‘30s, the restricted intercourse of the northern Albanians due to their geographical isolation and the pagan rituals and symbols of the traditional ceremonies. The Albanian way of worshiping seems to have been shaped by life pragmatism, social equilibrium and personal honesty. Nothing can describe it better than the people who lived with it for some time and were able to define it from a different mental perception. The description may supply modern insight of the particular attitude that this country reflected in early in the past century.

How to safeguard world heritage sites? A theoretical model of “cultural responsibility”

We outline a model in which preservation of UNESCO heritage sites is analyzed as a classical global public good problem where the decentralized Nash equilibrium yields suboptimal contribution vis-a-vis the Social Planner equilibrium. The absence of a Global Social Planner and the need of coordination across different countries for the implementation of the second solution make the Social Planner equilibrium hardly attainable. The same problem arises when trying to enforce symmetric or asymmetric tax deductions in different countries. We analyze the contribution that cultural corporate responsibility can give to the solution of the problem discussing its limits and potential vis-a-vis the other two alternatives.

Regulating social exchanges in open MAS: The problem of reciprocal conversions between POMDPs and HMMs

An important problem in open multiagent systems is that of the regulation of social exchanges, toward producing social equilibrium. This problem may be generalized to the regulation of autonomous agents’ interactions when cooperating/competing in order to achieve their individual, collective objectives. In this paper, we take an abstract and generalizing approach to this issue. The problem is formalized as a regulation model for the sequential decision making of an agent, acting in an open partially observable stochastic environment, with the aim to induce another autonomous agent to interact in certain way, so as to lead both agents toward a target exchange state configuration. The regulation model is defined as a combination of a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP), to structure the regulator agent decision process, with a Hidden Markov Model (HMM), to structure its exchange strategy learning process. The main challenge we face is the reciprocal conversion between POMDPs and HMMs. The solution we have found builds on the particular structures of the POMDPs and HMMs that arise in the context of the regulation of social exchanges, which allow for the establishment of a kind of isomorphism between the two models. This paper formally develops these ideas, stating and proving the conversion theorems, and shows their application to an example of regulation of social exchanges.

Reorienting and Recalibrating Inter-organizational Relationships: Strategies for Achieving Optimal Trust

Drawing upon longitudinal, dyadic, comparative case-based research, we analyze the pursuit of optimal trust, i.e. trust that is neither excessive nor insufficient, by introducing the concepts of reorientation and recalibration. First, we show that large deviations from optimal trust are best addressed by reorientation which deals with both too much as well as too little trust. Reorientation processes include substantial efforts to change parties’ attributions of the intentions underlying past behavior, to reestablish social equilibrium among the parties, and to make structural changes via adjustments to goals and incentives. Reorientation is necessary when imbalance occurs in the powerful and opposed forces associated with excessive trust (faith, favoritism, contentment, loyalty) vs insufficient trust (skepticism, impartiality, exigency, opportunism). Second, we demonstrate that there is an effective path to maintaining optimal trust via practices we call recalibration, wherein small deviations are addressed before damage to trust occurs. Recalibration maintains inter-organizational trust near its optimum through processes that proactively balance the opposed forces. Large deviations from optimal trust in either direction can unleash destabilizing dynamics, requiring significant reorientation efforts to offset. Recalibration processes are then essential for preserving the effects of successful reorientation.

La dinámica del empresario en la sociedad. De la Escuela Austriaca a la economía social de mercado

One of the great contributions to economic thought is that of central Europe from the Austrian School to the Freiburg School on the basis of which the Economic Order of a Social Market Economy is developed. Along this line of knowledge, it is characterised, in the first place, by the integration of the economy into society. That is, it develops the society dimension of the economy oriented towards the individual and is based on the Competency Principle. It is its great understanding of the economic reality and the role of the individual to that characterised in the search of freedom and responsibility for the «action» of the individual.It is the great contribution to an Order of Freedom in which the entrepreneur and “entrepreneurship” figures. It is the foundation of economic development, the Schumpeterian model: to which the Freiburg School contributes with the design of the Socio-Economic Order that sets out the action of the individual in the “values system”. This Economic Order defines, based on Principles and Rules, the development of the economic Organisation in Society. Walter Eucken promotes this conceptualisation of Economic Order as the common reference for the activity of the individual. The entrepreneur plays a decisive role, in the society dimension, in order to ensure that the dynamics of a market economy “functions well”, who makes it feasible and ensures economic efficiency on the one hand, and social equilibrium, on the other. A Social Market Economy is a social “values system” that integrates the “ends” of the economy in Society and the integral development of the individual by the efficient use of scarce resources. Economic Efficiency and Social Equilibrium ensures an order of freedoms in which the entrepreneur may develop if he contributes with his competence, and the Principal of Subsidiarity, in his development.

Creating wilderness: a transnational history of the Swiss National Park

Figures Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations Introduction Chapter 1. Global Parks: Parks, Globalization, and Western Modernism * The Myth of Yellowstone * as Symbol * The Value of Unspoiled * The Global Conservation Movement * Parks and Natural Monuments * The Globalization of the Chapter 2. Natures: The Swiss and the Conservationist Internationale * Beautiful Vision of the Future * Laying the Foundations * The Dimension * Reserve or National Park * and Global Conservation * Dynamics and Contingencies Chapter 3. Local Landscapes: Political Spaces, Institutional Arrangements, and Subjective Attitudes * Global, Local * Local Culture and Economy * Fears and Expectations * Area Selection and Initial Leases * Rounding Out and Expanding * Dealing with Conflicts * Institutionalization and Subjectivation Chapter 4. Protection: Philosophy and Practice of Freely Developing Nature * Total Protection and Intervening in Natural Processes * Humans and Animals * The Role of Wardens * Managing * Introducing Animals * Seeking a New Equilibrium Chapter 5. Ecological Laboratory: The as a Scientific Experiment * A New Field within Ecology * Organizing and Financing Research * Scientific Park: International Reception * Changing Research Methods and Practices * Asynchronous Rhythms: Long-Term Observation and University Research * Growing Importance of the as a Field Laboratory? Chapter 6. Wilderness Limits: Natural Dynamics and Social Equilibrium * A Faustian Bargain with Water Power * Gambling with the * Calling All Lovers * And the Tourists Came * Recreational Instruction * Managing Wildlife * Of Hunters and Deer * Shooting in the Conclusion Bibliography Index

Trust, Norms of Cooperation, and the Rural Credit Market in Eighteenth-Century France

An examination of the loans recorded by the notary in the seigneurie of Delle during the eighteenth century sheds light on alterations to the mechanisms of trust. In early modern France, the traditional local credit market was based on strong norms of cooperation and reciprocity, in which trust was taken for granted. Changes in the nature of investors and investments during the eighteenth century, however, disturbed this fragile social equilibrium, causing trust to migrate in several new directions.

The stabilizing role of the Sabbath in pre-monarchic Israel: a mathematical model.

The three monotheistic cultures have many common institutions and some of them germinated in pre-monarchic Israel. Reasonably, the essential institutions were in place at that starting point; this work explores the possibility that the Sabbath is one of these institutions. Our mathematical examination points to the potential cultural, civic, and social role of the weekly Sabbath, that is, the Sabbath institution, in controlling deviation from social norms. It begins with an analogy between spread of transgression (defined as lack of conformity with social norms) and of biological infection. Borrowing well-known mathematical methods, we derive solution sets of social equilibrium and study their social stability. The work shows how a weekly Sabbath could in theory enhance social resilience in comparison with a similar assembly with a more natural and longer period, say between New Moon and Full Moon. The examination reveals that an efficient Sabbath institution has the potential to ensure a stable organization and suppress occasional appearances of transgression from cultural norms and boundaries. The work suggests the existence of a sharp threshold governed by the “Basic Sabbath Number ש0”—a critical observance of the Sabbath, or large enough ש0, is required to ensure suppression of transgression. Subsequently, the model is used to explore an interesting question: how old is the Sabbath? The work is interdisciplinary, combining anthropological concepts with mathematical analysis and with archaeological parallels in regards to the findings.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10867-014-9373-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Legal Appraisal of the Status of Vicarious Liability in Customary Criminal Law in Nigeria

Away from what constitutes crime under the Received English Law, crime under the Nigerian customary criminal law are those norms, values and native standards, a breach of which affects the social and corporate existence of the people subject to the laws. As distinct from the object of crime, being punishment, under Received English law, the object of crime under Nigerian customary law jurisprudence goes beyond punishment. Objects such as harmony, restitution, compensation and social equilibrium are more of the objects of crime under Nigerian customary criminal jurisprudence This paper will briefly look at crime under customary law and the concept of vicarious liability under the Received English Criminal law. Vicarious liability under customary criminal will be expounded and particular offence(s) which attract(s) vicarious liability under customary criminal law, ex-rayed.

Género, economía del cuidado y pago del trabajo doméstico rural en Jilotepec, Estado de México.

El trabajo doméstico y el cuidado de niñas, ancianas y enfermas de las mujeres rurales, crea plusvalía y riqueza económica, desarrolla la economía del cuidado para atender las necesidades de la familia y asegura el equilibrio social en el aspecto político. El valor del trabajo de las amas de casa en México equivale, en millones, a 21 % del Producto Interno Bruto (PIB), por encima del aporte del ramo de la construcción. El tiempo y el esfuerzo invertidos por las mujeres rurales equivale a cuatro jornadas de trabajo al día para atender la casa, el empleo, la familia, y la producción agrícola y pecuaria. Considerando la perspectiva de género, la teoría feminista y la economía del cuidado, se plantea la pregunta: si el trabajo doméstico y de cuidado agrega valor al PIB: ¿por qué no se paga? La investigación realiza una valoración económica del trabajo doméstico y del cuidado en familias rurales del municipio de Jilotepec, Estado de México y plantea el pago monetario del mismo.

Political connection and firm value: an Indian perspective

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to verify existence of political connection of firms in India. For this purpose the paper first presents a theoretical model and then tests empirically the movement of stock prices during two state elections in India.Design/methodology/approach– The methodology is theoretical modelling where the paper applies the standard Cournot model of oligopoly. The paper then applies correlation and Wilcoxon Paired Rank Sum test to verify the results of the theoretical model by using data from the Indian stock market during the election results.Findings– The theoretical result states that some firms opt for political connection and some remain independent in an oligopoly. It also shows that political connection affects stock price. The empirical results find out that divergent responses of stock prices to the election results can be linked to politically connection.Research limitations/implications– The theoretical model is a simple two firm model and not generalized tonnumber of firms. The empirical test considers only two state elections and applies simple statistical test. The study is restricted to one country only.Practical implications– The paper has practical implications for stock market. It has implications for corporate governance and for political governance. This is important since political connection of firms has emerged as an important issue in India.Social implications– The paper is important as it addresses the issue of political connection of firms, which have ramifications for social equilibrium. In a democratic country like India any nexus between political party and firms may adversely affect not only corporate governance but also political governance.Originality/value– This paper looks at political connectedness theoretically in a federal structure, an issue not addressed so far in the literature. Second it considers not so discussed topic of market perception of political connection in India. The originality of the paper is that it presents a theory and also verifies the theoretical results with empirical test.

The price of money with no value (earned without work)

The article highlights the characteristics of a phenomenon that tends to directly attack the wellbeing of large amounts of the population in a manner that jeopardizes the development of the individuals, diffuses the leisure and damages the social equilibrium of a nation. This phenomenon also pairs well with other phenomena common these days such as corruption and underground economy. We are living in hard times when the shameless triumph or the abusers are admired, a society without guiding principles, and the opportunism wins, the insolents set the tone while the population tolerates it, everything becomes corruptible while the majority remains silent. This picture of today’s world is very often complemented by the indifference taking the form of lack of action, ultimately giving birth to thoughts on whether it is high time to hide, to back down, analyze our activity to take a firm grip on oneself and reevaluate those around us. When the abuse of power for personal gains manifests from post to pillar, the corruption is systemic, the harmful perception that impunity exists should be destroyed. Unless we do it by uniting our forces in fighting this critical issue, the idea that money can be earned without effort or work will be disseminated and ultimately their value cannot be other but zero.It would be very helpful to look back in history while reconsidering out attitude towards work, moral and ethical values, well promoted by religion. There is an attractive link between religion and economy, but without understanding it in broad sense, as if religion should be linked to the evolution of an economic indicator. Beyond the attribute of being an economic performer the believer possesses, this attribute can be outwardly disseminated only through work, as it is the only that adds value. Isn’t the economic growth measured precisely by the value added? Where does this new value comes from which has its roots exclusively in lively work carried out by the people – creation of the Divinity – with and on the materiality? To better understand this, I suggest we should imagine a peasant in spring going with a basket full of corn seeds to seed a plot of land that he had previously ploughed and cared so as to be ready for a new crop. If he carefully seeds the corn from his basket on the plot formerly looked after and through his effort, his work, attends for the shoots coming out from the ground to be irrigated on time and the pests to be removed, there is no doubt that the results will not be late in coming. Following the faithful effort and work put into the cultivation of the corn, the harvesting will bring out ten folds more corn seeds. Isn’t this added value? Is this peasant respect-worthy? Are his effort and work true and clean?