Social-ecological Interactions Research Articles

社会-生态网络方法研究进展

社会-生态系统是由一个或多个社会和生态子系统交互作用形成的复杂的、非线性的、动态耦合系统。理解社会与生态子系统之间的复杂交互关系对于实现有效、可持续的环境治理至关重要。社会-生态网络方法是网络理论在社会-生态交互作用研究中应用与发展的产物，在定量刻画社会-生态系统结构、分析系统动态变化、推动系统适应性治理等方面具有重大的应用潜力。系统梳理了国内外现有的社会-生态网络研究，首先从网络的类型、构建模式、分析方法3个方面介绍社会-生态网络方法，并阐述其在资源管理、社会-生态匹配、社会-生态适应性治理领域中的应用，探讨社会-生态网络方法在研究社会-生态交互作用中的优势和挑战，最后提出未来社会-生态网络研究的重点方向，即社会-生态网络的动态变化过程以及社会-生态网络结构与功能关系。研究旨在深化网络分析可用于描述人—自然关系的认识，为社会-生态系统的网络研究提供实践指导，以期促进社会-生态网络方法在我国社会-生态系统研究中的应用。;Social-ecological system is composed of social subsystem and ecological subsystem and the interactions between them, whose structures and functions are different from those of social subsystem or ecological subsystem alone. Social-ecological system is therefore characterized by complexity, non-stability and nonlinearity. At present, dynamic evolutions and mutual feedback mechanisms have gradually become the core contents of social-ecological system research. Achieving effective and sustainable environmental governance requires a better understanding of the complex interdependencies in social-ecological systems. However, the complexity, mutual feedback loops and other nonlinear dynamic characteristics of social-ecological dependence, as well as differences in interdisciplinary research paradigms make it very difficult to conceptualize and understand human-nature interactions in the social-ecological system. With the development of modern graph theory, statistical theory, computer technology, etc., network thinking has gradually been practically applied in analyzing the internal relations of the system. Social-ecological network method has been born as a product of the application and development of network theory in the study of socio-ecological interaction, which has great application potential in quantitatively descripting the system structure, analyzing the system dynamic changes, and promoting adaptive governances. We systematize existing social-ecological network studies and introduce the social-ecological network methods in terms of the type of network, building mode and analysis method. Then the article summarizes the social-ecological network method's applications in the field of natural resource management, social-ecological fit, social-ecological adaptability governances. By discussing the advantage and challenge of the social-ecological network method in the research of social-ecological interaction, we believe that the generalization of the social-ecological system into a network provides an effective way to understand the social-ecological dependence and insight into the behavior of the system. However, currently, the lack of generally recognized social-ecological interaction theory, insufficient practical application cases and researches on the causal relationship between structure and function, etc., still hinder the further development of social-ecological network methods. Finally, we put forward two important directions on strengthening and improving social-ecological network research in the future, that is, to introduce mathematical or physics methods to study the dynamic change process of social-ecological network, and to use more cases to reveal the relationship between the structure and function of social-ecological network. The paper aimed at deepening the understanding that network analysis can be used to describe human-nature relationship, and providing practical guidance for social-ecological network research, to promote a scientific and standardized application of the network method in social-ecological system studies in China.

Modeling Atlantic herring fisheries as multiscalar human-natural systems

Fisheries contribute to food and nutrition security, livelihoods, and poverty alleviation for billions of people globally. However, human-environmental interactions in fisheries are rarely assessed locally, regionally, and globally at the same time, limiting social-ecological resilience in fisheries management. We evaluated worldwide catches of a keystone forage fish (Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus) over 65 years (1950–2014); modeled local, regional, and global interactions among industrial, artisanal, subsistence, and recreational fishing sectors; and predicted future catches using a multifaceted and multilayered human-nature coupling framework for assessing social-ecological interactions within and across adjacent and distant fisheries (termed “metacouplings”). Across 17 exclusive economic zones (EEZs), catches by nations in their own EEZs (7.1 × 107 metric tons [MT]) outweighed those in adjacent EEZs (5.3 × 107 MT). However, adjacent-EEZ fishing was the largest-tonnage fishing type in more EEZs (53 %), reflecting the proximity of Northern/Western European fishing nations and regulations conducive to fishing in neighboring waters. Catches in distant (non-adjacent) EEZs were relatively small (1.2 × 107 MT). Fishing-sector interactions were generally positive but notably negative for artisanal fishing, which declined with increasing industrial and recreational catches in five EEZs (29 %). Combined with projected declines in artisanal and subsistence catches in parts of Germany, Norway, and Sweden, metacoupling interactions could elicit harmful financial, food-supply, and food/nutrition security outcomes for small-scale fishers if metacouplings remain absent from management programs. However, quantitative and conceptual tools developed herein enable fisheries managers to identify where, when, and how to maximize positive and minimize negative metacoupling interactions and thereby ensure continued ecological, economic, nutritional, and sociocultural benefits for fisheries stakeholders, locally to globally.

Social-Ecological Intertwinedness: An Attempt at a Clarification

In social-ecological systems (SES) research the conceptualization of social-ecological interactions has advanced from viewing SES as separate social and ecological systems where one system acts as an exogenous “driver” on the other, to conceptualizing them as coupled or linked ecological and social systems (Berkes and Folke 1998), as embedded systems (Folke 2016, Folke et al 2016), towards acknowledging that the social and the ecological are deeply intertwined (Folke et al. 2016). Below we present these different conceptualizations and provide our own interpretation/understanding of intertwinedness in terms of intra-active processes and relations (Barad 2007, 2012). We end by discussing some implications of this understanding of intertwinedness for the study of SES.

Progress, opportunities and challenges for marine conservation in the Pacific Islands

Abstract The people of the Pacific have long relied on the ocean for sustenance, commerce and cultural identity, which resulted in a sophisticated understanding of the marine environment and its conservation. The global declines in ocean health require new and innovative approaches to conserving marine ecosystems. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been shown to be a highly effective means of conserving biodiversity and managing fisheries, while also restoring and preserving overall ecosystem function. Traditional ecological knowledge held by many island peoples in the Pacific is critical to the development, design and implementation of contemporary MPAs. Chile's offshore islands are among the few oceanic archipelagos along the west coast of South America. These islands have cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific, yet our scientific understanding of them is extremely limited. Chile has created several large‐scale MPAs around their offshore archipelagos. By protecting these unique ecosystems, Chile has established itself as a global leader in marine conservation. Effective management and a better understanding of social–ecological interactions are currently the biggest challenges facing MPAs in the Pacific Islands.

Sustainable coastal social-ecological systems: how do we define “coastal”?

ABSTRACT Coastal social-ecological systems (SES) are home to over 500 million people and one of the most productive and diverse ecosystems in the world. In recent years, coastal SES are experiencing severe threat from an increasing population, resource exploitation, and global environmental change (e.g. climate change), which have devastating societal impacts in coastal areas. Despite several global, national, and local initiatives, there is a growing consensus that coastal resources are depleting and increasing conflicts in coastal areas. Recognizing the global call to understand social–ecological interactions for implementing development practices, this special issue features a suite (seven) of articles advancing the understanding of the sustainability of social and ecological interactions within coastal areas through theoretical SES approaches and related analytical methods. In this editorial of this special issue, we also argued that coastal area needs to define from SES perspectives, which have received less attention compared to ecological and social perspectives. We hope that this special issue will stimulate the debate and further thinking of how coastal SES can be managed sustainably by conceptualizing and understanding the complex dynamics (interaction, feedback) of SES.

Impacts of shellfish reef management on the provision of ecosystem services resulting from climate change in the Dutch Wadden Sea

Ecosystem goods and services define and measure the importance of environmental resources for the well-being and prosperity of societies, considering complex social-ecological interactions and relationships. The management of coastal ecosystem services seeks to analyse the various service characteristics and potentials in relation to human activities in coastal zones which are major contributors to Blue Economies. Shellfish reefs provide many of these ecosystem services, but their efficient use and conservation depend on MSP strategies. Therefore, a conceptual framework was adapted and applied to allow an evidence-based decision making that protects and ensures a sustainable use of shellfish reefs.The Dutch Wadden Sea was selected as a case study that could benefit from the implementation of this theoretical framework. This application included an ecological modelling approach that enabled the exploration of future climate scenarios. Four shellfish-based management strategies were developed: Do nothing, Hold the line, Advance the line and Recolonization. These strategies were applied to the modelled climate scenarios and evaluated by their potential effects to the net flow of Ecosystem Services from shellfish reefs. A multi-criteria analysis identified the benefits that could be derived from actively preserving and maintaining shellfish reefs. Results indicate that the performance of different management choices varies under different scenarios, thus the selection of one or another must be well informed. Knowing the effects of different management strategies on the provision of ecosystem services creates awareness among stakeholders and can help policy makers in their decisions to efficiently manage the Dutch Wadden Sea from a conservation perspective.

Social-ecological assessment of Lake Manyara basin, Tanzania: A mixed method approach

The social-ecological system of the Lake Manyara basin (Northern Tanzania), a UNESCO Biosphere reserve (BR) suffers from social-economic and environmental problems due to decreasing water levels, erosion and land and water use conflicts. We propose an integrated assessment of the social-ecological interactions of the area to support future sustainable management. Within the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework an integrated literature review and several methods of knowledge collection were combined to identify future management priorities and challenges. During focus groups with farmers and pastoralists, stakeholders confirmed the role played by land use changes as driver and pressure in the landscape, e.g. through increased erosion rates and siltation of the lake. Moreover, economic and social issues were identified as prominent factors being influenced by, or influencing these processes. These statements match the scientific literature. During participatory mapping exercises different spatial and resource allocation perceptions appeared amongst pastoralists and farmers. The multidisciplinary approach proved to be useful to acquire an integrated and comprehensive understanding of the state, challenges and opportunities of Lake Manyara BR, to feed into a decision support system in service of an integrated management plan. Our assessment suggests that improved water governance in a multi-actor approach (with a focus on distribution of benefits, rights, and a specific role of the water authorities) should be a priority for future integrated management strategies. Also, awareness raising amongst decision makers, scientists and local communities is needed to demonstrate the advantages of an integrated approach. And finally, visible and fair mechanisms to share conservation revenues should be designed in a way that local benefits can be obtained together with incentive mechanisms for co-management and conservation.

The role of policy in social-ecological interactions of nitrogen management in the Mississippi River basin.

Excess nitrogen (N) loading in the Mississippi River basin is a major water quality issue, encompassing large spatial scales and feedbacks between social and biophysical entities. Effective management depends on reductions in agricultural N loading, mainly from the Corn Belt region in the upper reaches of the basin. In this study, we evaluated the role of federal Nutrient Task Force policy on N management from 2000 to 2015. We analyzed trends in nitrate (NO3 - ) concentrations from monitoring data in 148 priority watersheds. We compared water quality trends with state nutrient reduction strategies, monitoring efforts, and land use. Of the 148 watersheds, 13 displayed a significant decrease in NO3 - concentrations, 24 displayed a significant increase, 51 displayed a nonsignificant trend, and 60 had insufficient data to analyze. We demonstrate that policy efforts on a large scale are slow to establish, but states and watersheds that showed signs of policy acting successfully could serve as examples for improved N management moving forward. Despite considerable variability, states with the most comprehensive strategies, evidenced by word count and presence of recommended elements, were almost exclusively located in the Corn Belt region. States with more thorough nutrient reduction strategies also tended to have a larger number of monitoring sites in priority watersheds (R=.42), demonstrating the potential for adaptive management. States with the most consistent improvements in NO3 - concentrations tended to have the most comprehensive policies, whereas variation in water quality trends was partly attributed to land use factors including slope and dominance of corn (Zea mays L.) and soy [Glycine max (L.) Merr.].

Integrating Insights from Social-Ecological Interactions into Sustainable Land Use Change Scenarios for Small Islands in the Western Indian Ocean

Small islands are vulnerable to the synergistic effects of climate change and anthropogenic disturbances due to the fact of their small area, geographical isolation, responsive ecologies, rapidly growing and developing populations and exposure to sea level and climate change. These changes exert pressures on ecosystem services, such as the provisioning of resources, and therefore threaten the sustainability of livelihoods. We reviewed key sustainability and livelihoods literature to bring together concepts of environmental livelihood resilience and stability across temporal and spatial scales and integrated them to produce a new conceptual framework for dynamic environmental livelihood sustainability (DESL). This framework aims to facilitate the incorporation of local community perspectives into water, energy and food nexus thinking about sustainable land use to support local livelihoods. Finally, we provide insights from this case study to evaluate the effectiveness of the DESL framework in addressing gaps in existing frameworks. We suggest this framing provides a mechanism for enhancing the agency of communities to produce more cohesive and inclusive land use management plans that can lead to enhanced environmental sustainability pathways.

Assessing the historical adaptive cycles of an urban social-ecological system and its potential future resilience: the case of Xochimilco, Mexico City

As the bulk of the world’s population becomes urban, maintaining urban ecosystem services for environmental and social well-being in cities is crucial. According to resilience theory, maintaining such services requires for a complex adaptive systems perspective that helps in identifying key elements and dynamics behind cross-scale social-ecological interactions. In this context, the objective of this article is to use a resilience “lens” to problematize the imminent loss of an urban wetland using the adaptive cycle model as a heuristic tool. Our case study focuses on the Xochimilco wetland, located in the southern periphery of Mexico City. Xochimilco is characterized by the presence of a complex system of raised bed wetland agriculture (the chinampa system), which was established over 1000 years ago; currently, despite having a recognized cultural and environmental value, it is threatened by increasing urban sprawl, over-exploitation of the aquifer, and water contamination. By conducting a historical analysis of the Xochimilco social-ecological system, we assess how it has gone through phases of the adaptive cycle. As a result, we identify critical elements of the system’s historically maintained resilience and main drivers of system change. From such findings, we present some insights on the possibilities of maintaining the system’s resilience and guidance for future management strategies for the Xochimilco wetland. Lastly, we reflect on the scope and limitations of using a resilience-based approach and an adaptive cycle analysis for addressing urban sustainability problems, especially in cities in the Global South.

Long-Term Ecological Research and Evolving Frameworks of Disturbance Ecology

AbstractDetecting and understanding disturbance is a challenge in ecology that has grown more critical with global environmental change and the emergence of research on social–ecological systems. We identify three areas of research need: developing a flexible framework that incorporates feedback loops between social and ecological systems, anticipating whether a disturbance will change vulnerability to other environmental drivers, and incorporating changes in system sensitivity to disturbance in the face of global changes in environmental drivers. In the present article, we review how discoveries from the US Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network have influenced theoretical paradigms in disturbance ecology, and we refine a framework for describing social–ecological disturbance that addresses these three challenges. By operationalizing this framework for seven LTER sites spanning distinct biomes, we show how disturbance can maintain or alter ecosystem state, drive spatial patterns at landscape scales, influence social–ecological interactions, and cause divergent outcomes depending on other environmental changes.

Social-Ecological Resilience as Practice: A Household Perspective from Agua Blanca (Ecuador)

Within a social-ecological system (SES), households develop specific practices, the logics of which are not derived directly or exclusively from higher levels (community, social-ecological system). This article advocates paying closer attention to this micro level of social-ecological analysis in order to gain a better understanding of the SES dynamic and its resilience. It explores the links between the functioning of the SES and human agency by means of a household approach (economic strategies, collective participation). To illustrate this proposal, an ethnographic case study was conducted in Agua Blanca, a community in Ecuador. The evolution and current situation of the SES, its desirability and the factors that support its resilience, as well as the practices of the most recently formed households, are analysed. This analytical proposal affords a more consistent understanding of the heterogeneous social-ecological interactions within an SES (plasticity), showing how resilience is inherently linked to practices. For this purpose, ethnographic methodology offers an outstanding tool.

Experimental Analysis of Wind Interaction with Olive Grove and the Atmospheric Surface Boundary Layer

The emblematic olive grove covers 17% of the South Spain territory. Last years, intensive farming has been developed around its exploitation. This causes many environmental and social problems, ecological interactions and environmental variables are modified, accentuating the climate change effects. The aim of this work is optimize the layout to allow a sustainable agricultural production, adapting the exploitation to the climate change and minimizing alterations over environmental variables. Thus, interaction between the Surface Boundary Layer (SBL) and olive groves has been analyzed experimentally. Wind tunnel reduced-scale tests were carried out for different setups: grid with homogeneous tree models, over a flat surface and over a hill, and simulating different vegetation covers. The same tests were replicated with staggered pattern and heterogeneous tree models. Wind velocity and turbulence kinetic energy profiles were obtained using Hot Wire Anemometry, taking measurements between models and behind them. It has been proved that olive grove spatial layout and the presence or absence of vegetation cover modify the SBL dynamics. Consequently, not only fundamental environmental variables are altered, for example, the moisture flux and the evapotranspiration, but also important variables for human health are modified, as pollen flow dispersion to urban areas.Keywords: Olive grove, environmental management, sustainability, wind tunnel

Using the telecoupling framework to improve Great Lakes fisheries sustainability

Fisheries are coupled human and natural systems across space and time, involving movements of fish, money, and information in a globalized world. However, these social-ecological interactions over local to global scales are largely absent from the fisheries literature, as fisheries research to date has often been discipline- and location-specific. We analyzed this knowledge gap by using an emerging coupled human and natural systems research paradigm – the telecoupling framework – to investigate social-ecological interactions over distances (i.e. telecouplings) in the Great Lakes salmonine (i.e. Coho Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch, Chinook Salmon O. tshawytscha) fishery. Since the 1960s, this fishery has involved telecoupled movements of fish, money, and information over relatively long distances facilitated by numerous individual and organizational agents. These telecouplings have been characterized by diverse social-ecological causes (e.g. decline of commercial fisheries, rising incomes and greater leisure time for recreational fishing) and effects (e.g. salmonine stocking, creation of angling- and tourism-based economies). Telecouplings are critical for fisheries professionals to consider because they promote holistic understanding of fisheries management while occasionally confounding conservation efforts (e.g. salmonine stocking spreads diseases and parasites and changes fish community structure and genetic integrity). Hence, fisheries professionals will benefit from using the telecoupling framework to optimize favorable and reduce unfavorable telecouplings and thereby enhance fisheries management programs. Overall, the telecoupling framework advances fisheries science by enabling fisheries professionals to systematically understand the causes and consequences of complex social-ecological fisheries interactions and develop informed strategies for sustainable fisheries management and governance throughout the Great Lakes and the world.

Landscape concepts and approaches foster learning about ecosystem services

The ecosystem services framework aims to encourage ecological sustainability through political-economic decisions. However, it fails to capture the complexity of social–ecological interactions. This is an obstacle for coping with current grand challenges through integrative knowledge production and collaborative learning. Landscape concepts and approaches, which emphasize human–environment interactions, governance and stewardship, can help overcome this obstacle. In particular, landscape concepts and approaches can help resolve the integrative and operational gaps encountered in the ecosystem services framework as a means of communicating evidence-based knowledge about the state and trends of ecosystems. The goal of this Special Issue is to address how different interpretations of landscape can support knowledge production about ES, and how applying landscape approaches on the ground can encourage more collaborative and sustainable land management alternatives. The effectiveness of the ecosystem services framework can be improved by (1) the use of landscape concepts to build bridges to different disciplines, arts and practice, as well as to build SMART sustainability indicators, and (2) the application of holistic landscape approaches for place-based knowledge co-production and collaborative learning across multiple governance levels. This forms the base for a research infrastructure integrating methods from the natural and social sciences through macroecology, comparative politics, and regional studies. While place-based research using landscape concepts can help develop more sustainable alternatives for land management, scaling up landscape approach initiatives towards landscape stewardship and fostering collaborations among initiatives are paramount challenges.

Analysing social-ecological interactions in disease control: An agent-based model on farmers’ decision making and potato late blight dynamics

In this paper we focus on potato late blight control in the Netherlands to analyse the social-ecological interactions between farmer behaviour and disease dynamics. An agent-based model was developed to analyse the use of crop resistance for sustainable disease control. The framework on farmers’ decision-making was based on a behavioural theory and supported by data from literature and interviews with Dutch potato farmers. This framework was integrated with a previously developed spatially explicit model on potato late blight dynamics. We assumed a scenario where a new resistant potato variety was introduced to the market. The model reproduced a boom-and-bust cycle: the percentage of farmers growing the resistant variety increased until resistance breakdown occurred by emergence and spread of a virulent strain, and in response farmers switched to other potato varieties and management strategies. Several factors and processes were identified that could contribute to the development of sustainable disease management strategies.

How Societal Values Determine the Local Use of Forest Resources—Findings from the Rural Community Kegong (Northwest Yunnan, China)

The transition from net deforestation to net reforestation in China has received much scientific attention, in the hope that, by understanding the underlying drivers and processes, it might be reproduced in other regions of the world. The scientific literature has suggested that this process was driven by the creation of off-farm opportunities and huge state afforestation programs by economic growth. Recent publications, however, have noted a lack of inclusion of local dynamics in this analysis. We used the social-ecological interactions (SEI) framework, designed for the assessment of ecosystem services in socio-ecological systems, to trace the causes and patterns of the local use of forest biomass in a village in Northwest Yunnan. Our results suggest that societal values, in particular, are key to understanding the local resource use underlying the forest transition in Yunnan. However, societal values have been neglected, both in the analysis of forest transition as well as in social-ecological systems research, in general.

Social-ecological alignment and ecological conditions in coral reefs

Complex social-ecological interactions underpin many environmental problems. To help capture this complexity, we advance an interdisciplinary network modeling framework to identify important relationships between people and nature that can influence environmental conditions. Drawing on comprehensive social and ecological data from five coral reef fishing communities in Kenya; including interviews with 648 fishers, underwater visual census data of reef ecosystem condition, and time-series landings data; we show that positive ecological conditions are associated with ‘social-ecological network closure’ – i.e., fully linked and thus closed network structures between social actors and ecological resources. Our results suggest that when fishers facing common dilemmas form cooperative communication ties with direct resource competitors, they may achieve positive gains in reef fish biomass and functional richness. Our work provides key empirical insight to a growing body of research on social-ecological alignment, and helps to advance an integrative framework that can be applied empirically in different social-ecological contexts.

Temperature Variability Differs in Urban Agroecosystems across Two Metropolitan Regions

Climatically similar regions may experience different temperature extremes and weather patterns that warrant global comparisons of local microclimates. Urban agroecosystems are interesting sites to examine the multidimensional impacts of climate changes because they rely heavily on human intervention to maintain crop production under different and changing climate conditions. Here, we used urban community gardens across the California Central Coast metropolitan region, USA, and the Melbourne metropolitan region, Australia, to investigate how habitat-scale temperatures differ across climatically similar regions, and how people may be adapting their gardening behaviors to not only regional temperatures, but also to the local weather patterns around them. We show that, while annual means are very similar, there are strong interregional differences in temperature variability likely due to differences in the scale and scope of the temperature measurements, and regional topography. However, the plants growing within these systems are largely the same. The similarities may be due to gardeners’ capacities to adapt their gardening behaviors to reduce the adverse effects of local temperature variability on the productivity of their plot. Thus, gardens can serve as sites where people build their knowledge of local weather patterns and adaptive capacity to climate change and urban heat. Climate-focused studies in urban landscapes should consider how habitat-scale temperature variability is a background for interesting and meaningful social-ecological interactions.

Digital co-construction of relational values: understanding the role of social media for sustainability

There is a deeply relational aspect to the systems people employ for sorting through and prioritizing plural values assigned to social–ecological interactions. Spurred by interpersonal relationships and adhesion to societal core values, such as justice and reciprocity, relational values go beyond instrumental and intrinsic approaches to understanding human behaviour vis-a-vis the environment. Currently, this relational dimension of values is entering the spotlight of the cultural ecosystem services (CES) literature focusing on non-material benefits and values people derive from ecosystems, such as aesthetics and sense of place. Relational values foster reflections on appropriateness and morality of preferences and respective behaviours in contributing to collective flourishment across space and time, holding implications for social–ecological justice and sustainability. Recently, several studies explored the potential of using social media data for assessing values ascribed to CES, but did not look at how this emerging approach could contribute to an enhanced understanding of relational values. In order to take up this goal, we conducted a systematic review, screening 140 publications and selecting 29 as relevant for exploring the extent to which relational CES values are inferable through social media. Our results show that social media data can reveal CES values’ plural and relational dimension. Social media platforms, thus, can be understood as new arenas for the co-construction of values, where relational values stemming from social–ecological interactions are negotiated and defined. Yet, work on their implications for social–ecological justice and sustainability needs to be extended.