Smoke Yields Research Articles

The cyclone separator application on physicochemical characterization of coconut shell-liquid smoke grade C

The further processing of coconut shell pyrolysis into liquid smoke has been developed in recent years. However, the common technology by directly condensing the smoke has many impurity compounds which decreases the yield of liquid smoke produced. Hence, in this study the cyclone separator was applied to increase the quality of physicochemical content in coconut shell-liquid smoke (CS-LS) grade C. The physical parameters analyzed were yield, pH, density and color. The chemical parameters was analyzed by GC-MS. The result showed that CS-LS processing with cyclone separator was able to increase the total yield into 3.33%, with better color, pH and density compared to the CS-LS produced using common method (direct condensation). The application of cyclone separator was also able to increase the phenolic compounds (97%), alcoholic compounds (92%), cycloalkene compounds (91%) and also decreased the benzoic acid, carbonyl and ester up to 100% compared with common method for CS-LS grade C production.

Redistillation and characterization of liquid smoke from ulin wood (Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binn.) and its ability as a chitosan solvent

The purpose of this research was to study the solubility of chitosan in the liquid smoke as a preliminary study for the application of liquid-chitosan combination as a bioimmunizer and growth booster in plants and as a preservative in fish processing. This research focused on redistillation and characterization of the liquid smoke from ulin wood (Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binn.) and its ability as a chitosan solvent. The purpose was to obtain the scientific data on the yield redistillation, characterization of the liquid smoke (pH, total acid, total phenol, and composition), and its ability as a chitosan solvent. This liquid smoke was the side product of ulin wood charcoal in South Kalimantan. The results showed that the yield of liquid smoke from redistillation was 76.14% and the characteristics were containing 2.21 pH, 3.38% g/mL of total acid, 3.05 g/L of total phenol, and other chemical compositions such as carboxylic acid (73.08%), alcohol (14.73%), carbonyl (9.43%), phenolic (1.56%), and ether (1.21%). This research also uncovered that the solubility of chitosan in the liquid smoke increased along with the higher value of the liquid smoke concentration, and the liquid smoke concentration of 5% was able to dissolve more than 50 g/L of the chitosan.

Combustion and emission characteristics of Jojoba biodiesel-jet A1 mixtures applying a lean premixed pre-vaporized combustion techniques: An experimental investigation

Abstract The raw Jojoba oil is utilized to produce biodiesel via a transesterification process, which is optimized using smoke point, yield, and viscosity of produced biodiesel, as well as the final product, is characterized utilizing GC-MS and FTIR. Then, the combustion and emission characteristics of Jojoba oil biodiesel-Jet-A1 blends are performed utilizing a lean premixed pre-vaporized combustion (LPP) approach. The JME with two blending ratios of 10% and 20% by volume and jet fuel of 90% and 80% by volume, as well as the pure jet fuel, are burned in an LPP combustor at two different equivalence ratios of 0.87 and 0.95 to investigate the suitability of using the JME-jet A1 fuel blends as an alternative energy resource. The LPP combustor is designed precisely regarding a comprehensive survey of the main parameters affecting on it, and its combustion results show that it has an acceptable and stable flame. The results indicate that the NOx emission decreases with enlarging the volume fraction of JME, while the CO and UHC formation increase. The flame temperature distributions are similar for the different tested fuels. It can be deduced that Jojoba biodiesel can be used up to 20% by volume as an alternative fuel with jet fuel in a commercial application.

Measurements of Optical Properties of Smoke Particulates Produced from Burning Polymers and Their Implications

A series of cone calorimetry experiments and simultaneous gravimetric sampling and light extinction (GSLE) measurements were performed to determine the optical properties (light obscuration and extinction characteristics) of smoke particulates produced from burning polymers. The polymer selected in the present study was acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS), which has a moderate smoke yield during combustion, and unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (UPVC), which has a lower smoke yield than ABS. The experiments show that the measured light obscuration for UPVC smoke particles is much lower than that for ABS smoke particles because of the low rate of smoke production during combustion. Results from the simultaneous GSLE measurements demonstrate more clearly that UPVC smoke particles represent a lower efficiency of light obscuration on a per-unit smoke mass basis, resulting in a 41.3% reduction in a mass specific extinction coefficient compared to the ABS smoke particles. Numerical analysis was performed to further elucidate the effect of optical properties on the smoke behavior using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) (Version 6.7.1, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, MD, USA). The numerical results clearly demonstrated that the UPVC combustion, with its relatively low heat release rate and mass specific extinction coefficient, caused a significant delay in detecting a fire with a smoke detector compared to ABS combustion.

Utilization of liquid smoke corn cobs for germination tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) seeds

Corn cobs are agricultural wastes that are often found in Indonesia, which so far are still not widely used as products that have added value. Corn cob contains 41% cellulose, 36% hemicellulose, and 6% lignin, so it can be used for making liquid smoke. Liquid smoke is one of the results of condensation or condensation from the steam produced by combustion directly or indirectly from materials that contain a lot of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and other carbon compounds. The method used for making liquid smoke is the pyrolysis method that is using pyrolizer, by burning and heating above the furnace, which will produce smoke and will then be condensed into liquid smoke. In this study, the performance of liquid smoke equipmwnt testing. The liquid smoke produced was carried out chemical and physical characterization and tested for seed germination and tomato growth (Solanum lycopersicum). The results of the research on making liquid smoke from corn cobs showed that the yield of liquid smoke was 28.37%, pH value 3.506. The results of the analysis of the chemical characterization of third-grade liquid smoke using GCMS detected approximately 32 chemical components. The results of the physical characterization analysis of liquid smoke showed a very strong odor, brownish red, and there were black sediments in the form of tar. The test results showed that the concentration of liquid smoke (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5% and 5% ) significant effect on seed germination and tomato growth (Solanum lycopersicum)

Utilization of Liquid Smoke from Cocoa pod husk (<i>Theobroma cocoa L</i>) for Germination of Red Seed (<i>Capsicum annum L</i>)

Research has been carried out on the use of cocoa pod husks for making liquid smoke. Liquid smoke is the result of condensation from direct or indirect combustion vapors from materials that contain lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and other carbon compounds. This research was conducted to determine the effect of liquid smoke from cocoa pod husk on the germination of red chilli seeds (Capsicum annuum L). The first stage of this research is the manufacture of liquid smoke from the cocoa pod husk using pyrolyzer. The resulting liquid smoke is subjected to chemical and physical quality testing, and is applied as a liquid fertilizer for red chilli seeds (Capsicum annuum L). The test results of making liquid smoke from the cocoa pod husk showed that the yield of liquid smoke produced was 19%. The results of the analysis of the chemical quality of liquid smoke in the third grade by using GCMS detected 30 chemical components, the main component as a liquid smoke characteristic is acetic acid, phenol, carbamic acid compounds. The results of the physical quality analysis of liquid smoke show a very strong smell, reddish brown, and black sediment in the form of tar. The results of the testing of liquid smoke on the germination of red chilli seeds showed that the concentration of liquid smoke (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4% , 4.5% and 5%) have a very significant effect on the maximum growth potential and germination of red chili seeds (Capsicum annum L).

Characteristics of fire in high-speed train carriages

With the rapid development of high-speed railways, safety hazards presented by train fires cannot be ignored. An effective design for protection against fire in high-speed trains is essential to ensure passenger safety. In this study, the cone calorimeter and ignition temperature tester were used to carry out combustion experiments on materials constituting the main components of the train. The heat release rate, smoke yield, CO yield, and ignition temperature of combustible materials were tested. Based on the experimental data of material combustion, a numerical model of the high-speed train carriage fire was simulated. The accuracy of the numerical simulation was verified by drawing a comparison with the full-scale train fire experiment in existing literature. The numerical simulation results revealed that when the fire source is present at the corner of the carriage end door, the fire develops to the maximum possible extent in approximately 25 min, with a peak heat release rate of approximately 38.4 MW. Increase in the carriage fire heat release rate and breakage of windows occur almost simultaneously. Improvement of the fireproof performance of windows can inhibit and delay the carriage fire development. For the flashover of carriage fire, the spread speed of the flashover area in the longitudinal direction inside the carriage is approximately 1.9 m/s. The end door area furthest from the fire source in the carriage has strong flashover, while the flashover in other areas is weak.

Performance comparison of liquid smokes from galam wood, rubber wood, and oil palm frond as latex coagulants on the quality aspects of the rubber cup lump

The quality of rubber cup lump is ditermined by several factors, one of them is the latex coagulant. The type of latex coagulant also affects the coagulating time. Liquid smoke is one of the most recommended latex coagulants due its save and effective operation. Deorub, the most popular liquid smoke, is made from shell of oil palm kernel. There are still many alternatives of liquid smoke materials that may have lower economic values. This study was aimed to evaluate and compare the performance of three liquid smokes produced from three alternative materials namely galam wood, rubber wood, and oil palm frond as latex coagulants. This study was performed using groups random design with two factors, namely type of coagulants and the concentrations (10% and 5%). Evalution was performed on the speed of coagulating time and also the quality of rubber cup lumps resulted by the tested coagulants, such as water content, rubber dry weight, ash content, and also the value of sensory quality (smell, color, texture, and the bubble). Liquid smoke resulted from oil palm fronds showed the best performance due to it’s lowest pH value (2.5) and the shorthest coagulating time (40 min) at concentration of 10%, which produced rubber lumps with rubber dry weight of 99.86% and ash content of 0.83%. Meanwhile, the highest yield of liquid smoke was resulted from galam wood (10%) with coagulating time of 72 minutes.

Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature and Time of Liquid Smoke Product from Candlenut Shell by Pyrolysis Process

The purpose of this research particularly to acknowledge process conditions that give the best yield of liquid smoke products maximum resulted during pyrolysis process of biomass shell pecans. This Research conducted on a fixed batch reactor made of metal plate with a thickness of 3.0 mm. It carries 200 kegs in capacity. In this phase, the moisture of Candlenut shells might be kept in 10 - 12.5 wt. percentages. Process temperature variation in the temperature of 350 ° C, 450 ° C and 550 ° C. and variations of pyrolysis at 15, 30, 45 until 435 min. Product identification by GCMS at Optimum condition to determine the components of pyrolysis generated. The result of the research is the best process condition of liquid smoke during pyrolysis maximum of Candlenut shell by using pyrolysis method at the time of 210 min and 450 C Temperatures respectively can be obtained maximum product yield of liquid smoke around 2.62056%. Identification of products by using GCMS (GC Mass Spectrometry) at optimum condition at temperatures of 450 ° C. and pyrolysis time is 210 min showed that liquid smoke candle nut shell consist of 7 (Seven) components consist of Cyclopentanone, Cyclopenten1 2-one, 2-cyclopenten-1-one, Acetic acid, Furancarboxildehide 2, 2 and 2 methoxyphenol Methoxy-4- methyl phenol.

Caracterization of Liquid Smoke Bamboo Waste with Pyrolysis Method

This research was aimed to produce and to analyze the quality and chemical composition of liquid smoke from bamboo waste by pyrolisis process. Temperatur of pyrolisis reactor were 140 oC, 180 oC, 220 oC, 260 oC and 300 oC for 5 hours to produce liquid smoke. Liquid smoke purified by filtration, distillation and adsorption. Resulted liquid smoke were analyzed yield, acidity, and density. Identifying the chemical composition of liquid smoke was by Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Yield of liquid smoke 1,6977% up to 3,9713 %; Acidity of liquid smoke were 1.49 up to 1,9; the density of liquid smoke 1,004 up to 1,045. The results of GC-MS test showed that chemical composition of the liquid smoke have Phenolic compounds 0,5 – 0,6ppm and liquid smoke found not containing of carsinogenic Benz (a) Pyrene.

Comparison of the Yield of Very Low Nicotine Content Cigarettes to the Top 100 United States Brand Styles

Summary The objective of this work was to compare the nicotine content and yield of new very low nicotine content cigarettes (VLN™) to the top 100 cigarette brand styles in the United States. Nicotine in tobacco filler and nicotine in smoke were measured. On a dry weight basis, VLN™ cigarettes averaged 0.5 mg of nicotine/g tobacco as compared to 19.4 for the top 100 brand styles in the United States. On a cigarette basis, VLN™ cigarettes contained 0.27 mg of nicotine compared to 12 mg for the top brands. On an ISO smoke yield basis, VLN™ produced 0.03 mg nicotine/cig compared to 0.903 mg nicotine/cig for the leading brands. VLN™ cigarettes contained > 95% less nicotine on a per gram basis of tobacco or per cigarette basis than the top 100 brand styles in the U.S. VLN™ cigarettes yielded > 95% less nicotine in smoke than the top brand styles in the United States.

Functional Porous Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Cellulose Acetate Composite Microspheres: Preparation, Characterization, and Application in the Effective Removal of HCN from Cigarette Smoke.

To selectively reduce the yield of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the cigarette smoke, functional porous carboxymethyl cellulose/cellulose acetate (CMC/CA) composite microspheres were prepared via the double emulsion-solvent evaporation method. Cupric ions, which have a high complexing ability toward HCN, were introduced to the CMC/CA composite microspheres during the fabrication process via an in situ ion cross-link method. The microspheres were characterized using nitrogen adsorption, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The microspheres have a predominantly macroporous structure indicating weak physisorption properties, but sufficient functional cupric ion groups to selectively adsorb HCN. With these CMC/CA microspheres as filter additives, the smoke yield of HCN could be reduced up to 50%, indicating the great potential of these microspheres as absorbents for removing HCN from cigarette smoke.

Combustion of waterborne intumescent flame-retardant coatings with hybrid industrial filler and biofiller

This paper presents the combustibility and thermal stability of an intumescent coating system, which incorporates rice husk ash (RHA) and eggshell as abundant by-products, with two other industrial fillers, namely TiO 2 and Al(OH) 3 . Evaluation was performed using cone calorimeter test at 50 kW m −2 and TGA. Experimental results indicated the influence of fillers on the combustibility properties of coating samples and the decomposition rate of coating materials. The TGA results demonstrated that the addition of RHA and eggshell results in the excess residue weight of more than 35% of the total weight loss. The cone calorimeter test results revealed the coating, which consists of TiO 2 and RHA, exerts no effect on fire growth because no ignition is observed. The results proved a remarkable fire resistance of waterborne intumescent coating with the addition of RHA and TiO 2 which (1) reduces the total heat release rate (HRR) and heat of combustion; (2) increases the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and smoke yields; and (3) releases the lowest amount of gaseous oxygen released. Consequently, the appropriate combination of hybrid industrial fillers and biofillers has significant influence on the combustibility performance and decomposition of the intumescent coating system.

Gas flow and filter ventilation of an unlit cigarette: model building, numerical solution and experimental validation

Understanding the fundamental relationship between gas dilution rate of a cigarette and key cigarette design parameters is important in the overall control of smoke yield. In this work, an equation was derived to express the total gas dilution with the cigarette rod length, cigarette paper air permeability, and the filter ventilation level. The relationship was validated using experimental results. The accuracy of the developed model was dependent on the regression method used, i.e., linear or a nonlinear. The expression provides a quantitative description of the interactions between filter ventilation level, cigarette length, cigarette circumference and cigarette paper air permeability and the total air dilution at the cigarette's mouth end.

Assessing the fire risk of electrical cables using a cone calorimeter

The presented study deals with the fire risk of electrical cables. Samples of three-core electrical power cables and two-core electrical control cables were investigated. The influence of the mutual spacing between the cables and the thermal conductivity of the material under the cables (underlying material) on fire risk was assessed in the study. The fire risk was determined using a cone calorimeter (at a heat flux of 50 kWm−2) and an oxygen bomb calorimeter. The fire risk was assessed based on parameters quantifying the released heat, toxicity and amount of combustion products and flashover category. The heat release rate, total heat release and the effective heat of combustion increase with increased spacing between the cables and decreased thermal conductivity of the underlying material. The carbon monoxide yield increases with the increase in the thermal conductivity of the underlying material. The influence of the spacing between cables on the carbon monoxide yield (in the interval 0–1800 s) depends on the thermal conductivity of the underlying material. At low thermal conductivity, the carbon monoxide yield decreases as the spacing decreases, with the opposite trend (with some exceptions) at high thermal conductivity. Smoke yield decreases with increasing thermal conductivity of the underlying material and also increases with increased spacing between cables. Neither the thermal conductivity of the underlying material nor the spacing between cables has an influence on the flashover category of the cables investigated.

Pyrolisis Of Corncob Waste To Produce Liquid Smoke

Corn cobs are the main waste of corn farming. Corncobs biomass waste chemically contains carbon and hydrogen which can be pyrolised to produce liquid smoke for food preservation. The aim of this study is to observe the effects of pyrolysis time and temperature as well as the particle size of corncobs to the yield of pyrolysis products. The discussion is limited to liquid smoke products. The experiments were performed by pyrolysing sun-dried corncobs at a certain weight and particle size in a slow heating rate pyrolysis equipment at a targeted residence time and temperature. The results of this study showed that the optimum yield of the liquid smoke was 48% and achieved at an optimum time, temperature and particle size of corncobs of 2.5 hours, 400 oC and 1 inch, respectively. The effect of pyrolysis time (t) on the yield of liquid smoke (Y) from corn cobs in this study could be represented quite well by an empirical equation of Y (%) = 33.57 + 0.024t + 9.10-04.t2 – 4.10-06t3. The empirical equation of the effect of pyrolysis temperature (T) on liquid smoke yield (Y) could be quite well represented by the equation Y (%) = 21.19 + 0.071T + 6.10-05T2 – 2.10-07T3. The characteristics of the liquid smoke produced from this study have a density of 1.05 g / mL, pH of 1.9, brown-red color, and corn-smoke like smell.

Flammability hazards of typical fuels used in wind turbine nacelle

SummaryThis study aims to develop a complete methodology for assessing flammability hazards of typical fuels (ie, transformer oil, hydraulic oil, gear oil, and lubricating grease) used in a wind turbine nacelle by combining different experimental techniques such as thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry. Pyrolysis properties (onset temperature, temperature of maximum mass loss rate, and mass residue) and reaction‐to‐fire properties (ignition time, heat release rate, mass loss rate, and smoke release rate) were determined and used for a preliminary assessment of thermal stability and flammability hazards. Additional indices, for ignition and thermal behavior (effective heat of combustion, average smoke yield, and smoke point height, heat release capacity, fire hazard parameter, and smoke parameter, were calculated to provide a more advanced assessment of the hazards in a wind turbine. Results show that pyrolysis of transformer oil, lubricating grease, hydraulic oil, and gear oil occur in the range of 150°C to 550°C. Lubricating grease and transformer oil show the higher and lower thermal stabilities with maximum pyrolysis rate temperatures of 471°C and 282°C, respectively. The measured relation between ignition time and radiant heat flux agrees well with Janssens method (a power of 0.55). The aforementioned indices appear to provide a reasonable prediction of performance under real fire conditions according to a full‐scale fire test documented by Declercq and Van Schevensteen. The results of the study indicate that transformer oil is the easiest to ignite while lubricating grease is the most difficult to ignite but also has the highest smoke production rate; that transformer oil has the highest heat release rate while gear oil has the lowest; and that the fire hazard parameter is the highest for transformer oil and the smoke parameter is the highest for lubricating grease. The potential of this type of work to design safer wind turbines under performance‐based approaches is clearly clarified.

Liquid smoke characteristics from the pyrolysis of oil palm fronds

This study was conducted as means to characterize the pyrolysis of oil palm fronds into more economical products. In particular, this study was focused on pyrolysis of oil palm fronds, which could generate products such as liquid smoke, tar and char. Four characteristics of liquid smoke were examined in this study, namely the yield of liquid smoke, phenolic content, total acid content and pH. These characteristics were examined in a temperature of 150 °C, 200 °C and 250 °C with processing time of 60 minutes, 90 minutes and 120 minutes. This study revealed that the highest yield of liquid smoke was equal to 43.47% at a temperature of 150 °C for approximately 2 hours, while the highest level of phenolic was obtained at a temperature of 250 °C for approximately 1 hour. Moreover, the highest total acid content obtained was 11.23% at a temperature of 150 °C with a time of 1 hour. In addition, all operating conditions has produced liquid smoke with an average pH value of 3.

Synthesis, characterization and fire retardant properties of novel nanocomposite based on polyethylene vinyl acetate/polyurethane acrylate/clay

Polymer/clay nanocomposite have attracted considerable attention owing to their excellent processibility, mechanical, optical, electric, fire retardant and gas barrier properties. To the polymer/clay nanocomposite, the dispersed state of clay and the binding force of the contact surface with polymer matrix are the most important factors to improve the properties of the nanocomposite materials. In this paper, a novel Poly(Ethylene vinyl acetate/Urethane acrylate) /Clay (PEUC) nanocomposites were synthesized by solution polymerization technique. The effect of different weight percentage of organoclay (cloisite25A) and fire retardant properties is studied. The prepared nanocomposites were characterized by FT-IR, Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Scanning electron microscope (SEM). XRD and SEM results indicate the formation of exfoliated nanocomposite in all cases with disappearance of the characteristic peak (2θ = 4.81°) corresponding to the d-spacing of the organoclay. Fire-retardant properties such as heat release rate, smoke and CO yield are measured by the cone colorimeter. The results showed that the PEUC nanocomposites had shown better fire-retardant properties than conventional polymer.

Calorific value and fire risk of selected fast-growing wood species

This study deals with heat of combustion of selected fast-growing woods. The study also investigates the impact of heat flux on fire risk of the selected fast-growing woods. The hybrid poplar J-105 (Populus nigra × P. maximowiczii), white willow (Salix alba L.) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) woods were measured. The heats of combustion were determined by a bomb calorimeter. Fire risk was evaluated with a cone calorimeter at different heat fluxes. The net heat of combustion occurred in the interval from 17.68 MJ kg−1 (black locust) to 18.02 MJ kg−1 (hybrid poplar). Fire risk was assessed on the basis of the critical heat flux, maximum average rate of heat emission, carbon monoxide yield, smoke yield and time to flashover. The hybrid poplar had the lowest critical heat flux (12.8 kW m−2), and the white willow had the highest critical heat flux (17.4 kW m−2). The maximum average rate of heat emission and the smoke yield increased with the increasing heat flux. On the other hand, carbon monoxide yield decreased with the increasing heat flux. The differences between the times to flashover of the measured wood species were not significant.