Smallholder Livestock Production Research Articles

Crossbreeding and its implication for small-scale animal agriculture in Africa: Outcomes, both positive and negative, and future prospects

<p>African animal genetic resources are diverse and have been the subject of crossbreeding for decades to improve local livestock and poultry populations. However, the literature on crossbreeding performance has been inconsistent, with many projects failing due to various reasons. This has led to mixed support and criticism for crossbreeding in small-scale animal agriculture. The review examines the achievements, problems, and future prospects for livestock and poultry genetic improvement through crossbreeding in Africa’s small-scale animal agriculture. Community-based Breeding Practices (CBBP) can be seen as a community livestock development strategy that mobilizes local animal genetic resources and boosts smallholder livestock producers’ ability to collaborate in resource-scarce communities. Genome sequencing is seen as the future cornerstone of promoting crossbreeding in Africa, but it should be based on consideration of the socioeconomic context of small-scale animal husbandry and local livestock production conditions. Smallholder farmers, who are the major custodians of local animal biodiversity, have faced challenges such as genotype and environmental interaction, lack of funding, poor laws, and lack of farmer participation. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of phenomics and genomic prediction in improving animal genetic resources in Africa, but it also emphasizes the need for further research and development in this area. The study suggests that modern breeding technologies (genomics and phenomics) and training of smallholder livestock farmers in improved animal husbandry management practices can be used to enhance food and nutrition security for African rural households. This review examines the effects of crossbreeding through the decades on small-scale livestock farming in Africa, including positive and negative outcomes as well as future implications.<strong></strong></p>

Prevalence of productive impact diseases in cattle in Gomez Farias County, Jalisco, Mexico

Andrés Ixtlán, Gómez Farías county, Jalisco, México; through the monthly collection from clinical cases data, attended from January 2019 to January 2020, in seven smallholders dairy farms.
 Design/Methodology/Approach: Seven different smallholder livestock production units, mainly semi-stalled dairy cows, were monitored from January 2019 to January 2020, To calculate the frequency of the disease, the prevalence rate (PR) and the cumulative incidence rate (CIR) were determined, through the following equations: PR = (Total cases in a population at a given place and time / Total population at that place and given time)

Seroprevalence of Leptospirosis in Cattle in Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Bungoma County, Kenya

Leptospirosis is an important re-emerging bacterial zoonosis of public health importance in Kenya. It is transmitted through contact with contaminated soil, water, or urine of infected animals. The disease is associated with high economic losses which include high cost of diagnosis and treatment, disruption of international trade in animals and animal products and loss of milk production following mastitis among others. In this study, the sero-prevalence of bovine leptospirosis in Kimilili and Mt Elgon Sub-Counties of Bungoma County in Kenya was estimated. A cross-sectional study was conducted between April to July, 2017 where blood serum samples from 200 head of cattle from five wards and one slaughter house using systematic random sampling technique. The samples were then subjected to the Enzyme Linked Immunorsorbent Assay (ELISA) test. The findings show an overall sero-prevalence for leptospirosis in cattle in the study area to be 16%. The sero-prevalence of leptospirosis in the study area by wards is as follows; 10.7% in Kibingei, 12.5% in Kimilili, 17.6 in Maeni, 16.7% in Kamukuywa and 15.6% in Kaptama. The study also reveals that the sero-prevalence was relatively higher in Kimilili Slaughterhouse which recorded 21.0%. The study therefore demonstrates that there is a high sero-prevalence of leptospirosis in cattle in Kimilili and Mt Elgon Sub-Counties, Bungoma County. This study therefore provides critical public health information which is necessary in guiding leptospirosis prevention and control in Bungoma County. It is therefore recommended that strategies for surveillance and laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis should be initiated in Bungoma County. This will help in providing better estimates of leptospirosis burden in the county.

Foliar nutrient content responses to bio-inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Rhizobium on three herbaceous forage legumes

Smallholder livestock production in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa has been hampered by a lack of high-quality feed. As such, improving ruminant nutrition using optimized production of herbaceous forage legumes has been suggested. However, the production of forage legumes for livestock feed is poor in communal areas in the province due to the necessity to use high levels of chemical fertilizers to provide high-quality feed that meets animal nutrient demands. The current study aimed at investigating the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Rhizobium inoculation on the chemical composition of three herbaceous forage legumes, namely, Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Lablab purpureus (lablab), and Mucuna pruriens (mucuna). The field trials were established over two growing seasons (2017/2018 and 2018/2019) at the University of Fort Hare Research Farm (South Africa) and were carried out as a 3 x 2 x 2 factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 12 treatments that were replicated 4 times. The 12 treatments included three legume species (cowpea, lablab, and mucuna), two AMF (with and without AMF inoculation), and two Rhizobia inoculations (with or without). The results showed that the dual inoculation of AMF and Rhizobia bacteria significantly (p < 0.05) increased the contents of crude protein, neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber, hemicellulose, ash, magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) of three herbaceous forage legumes. Furthermore, solo inoculation with AMF or Rhizobia bacteria resulted in substantially higher potassium (K), Ca, and Mg cation ions, and Ca/P, Zn, manganese (Mn), and Fe concentrations in forage legumes than in other treatments. In conclusion, the dual inoculation produced optimal nutrient accumulation in both growing seasons when compared to single inoculation and uninoculated forages. Therefore, this could assist in alleviating livestock malnutrition in smallholder farming.

Case Studies on Impacts of Climate Change on Smallholder Livestock Production in Egypt and Spain

Climate change is one of the hot topics of this decade and seriously affects all economic production sectors including the livestock farming sector. In many scenarios, the Mediterranean region is expected to experience unconventional and severe climate change that necessitates adopting effective strategies to improve the resilience of the livestock farming sector, particularly for smallholders. Here, we performed a cross-sectional survey of 277 smallholder livestock farmers in Egypt and 223 in Spain in order to (1) assess smallholder livestock farmers’ awareness of climate change and its potential impacts on animal performance, (2) identify climate change factors affecting animal productivity, and (3) identify the resilience of small-scale livestock farms in the region to the effects of climate change on animal productivity and existing and future needed adaptive measures. The results showed that just over 90% of respondents were aware of climate change and its potential effects on animal productivity, and just over 60% of smallholders in Spain obtained relevant knowledge through their own direct observation, while most smallholders in Egypt obtained knowledge through communication with other farmers and from the media. The role of extension advisors has diminished in the two countries, recording 0.36% in Egypt and 1.35% in Spain. The survey responses suggest that heat waves, humidity, and drought are the major climatic changes affecting smallholding animal production, representing 68.65, 16.34, and 15.01%, respectively. Climatic change appears to have affected primarily milk yield, wool production, and reproductive performance on the smallholding farms in our survey, while affecting meat production, mortality rate, and egg production to a smaller extent. As measures to buffer the effects of climate change, 25% of respondents in Egypt indicated that they have adopted nutritional strategies, 36% indicated that they manage housing conditions, and 6% indicated that they use genetically improved animal breeds. The corresponding percentages among respondents in Spain were 15%, 28%, and 4%, respectively. In conclusion, awareness about climate change as well as adaptation measures are the major axes to sustaining the growing demand for livestock products. Furthermore, mitigation strategies are keys to limiting the upcoming extent of climate change, and there are several adaptation strategies.

Production decisions and food security outcomes of smallholder’s livestock market participation: empirical evidence from Zimbabwe

Smallholder market participation is an important pathway to improving the productivity and livelihoods of farm households. Despite several studies documenting the effect of market participation on crop production, relatively little is known about the effect of smallholder participation in livestock markets. We investigate effects of smallholder market participation on livestock production and household food security in Zimbabwe. Using survey data collected from 625 households and an instrumental variables strategy to address endogeneity concerns, we find that households participating in livestock markets are more likely to engage in market-oriented livestock production, use improved livestock inputs, and have better food security outcomes. While market participants are more likely to consider market conditions in their decisions, most farmers are needs-driven and cannot afford to adopt commercial-oriented behavior. Overall, smallholder livestock production systems respond to market incentives and can support food security strategies, particularly in drylands where crop production is risky.

Factors influencing the intensity of market participation of smallholder livestock producers in southwest Ethiopia

Factors influencing the intensity of market participation of smallholder livestock producers in southwest Ethiopia

Biosecurity and Economic Impact of Major Diseases of Livestock Among Rural Farmers in Plateau State, Nigeria: A Pilot Study.

To maintain excellent production on a farm, biosecurity is critical. Smallholder livestock producers and their animal health management practices are often perceived to increase the risk for disease incursion and spread within farms. This pilot study is aimed at assessing rural farmers’ practices and knowledge of preventive and biosecurity measures against major diseases of livestock and determining the socioeconomic impact of these diseases in these communities within Nigeria. This is a cross-sectional questionnaire-based survey in five Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Plateau State, Nigeria. 3 major communities that rear poultry, small and large ruminants within these 5 LGAs were identified as the Berom, Tarok, and Fulani communities; from where 50 farmers were randomly selected from the list of willing farmers to participate in the present study. The farmers identified Contagious Bovine Pleuron Pneumonia and Foot and Mouth Disease as the major disease of cattle while Peste des Petits Ruminants as the major disease of small ruminants and New Castle Disease for poultry. Contagious Bovine Pleuron Pneumonia, Foot and Mouth Disease, Peste des Petits Ruminants, and New Castle Disease are the diseases identified by respondents as the most economically important disease in cattle, small ruminants, and poultry respectively. 30% of the farmers do nothing in case of a Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia outbreak while 60% protect their animals through medication or isolation in case of Foot and Mouth Disease. 26% of the farmers sell out their animals in the Peste des Petits Ruminants outbreak while 50% of the respondents do nothing in case of a New Castle Disease outbreak. It is recommended that a robust and sustained awareness of the economic importance of livestock diseases, and a campaign on how to prevent, control, and institute effective biosecurity measures against the diseases are carried out in Plateau State farming communities and beyond.

Gender-Linked Dynamics and Sustainable Small Holder Poultry Value Chains in Makueni County, Kenya

Understanding the gender-linked dynamics in the small holder poultry value chain is necessary for enabling sustainable agriculture and food systems. Small holder livestock production, including poultry keeping in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), plays important socio-economic and food security roles in rural communities. Poultry production contributes to sustainable food systems as it supports nutrient cycling through feed, manure, and soils. A qualitative study utilized data from 18 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 22 in-depth interviews (IDIs) to interrogate the gender-linked dynamics in the value chain and inform interventions for sustainable food systems. The data were audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded into themes responding to the study question. The results highlight the gender-linked drivers, namely, the social and economic value placed on poultry, ownership, power positions, and decision making dynamics in production and management among small holder poultry value chain actors in Makueni County, Kenya. The study findings demonstrate the increasing economic and social value placed on poultry in households and communities. The study further discusses gender-disaggregated ownership and decision making in the poultry value chain, highlighting the need to engage all involved actors to develop sustainable food systems. In addition to the social and economic value of poultry to small holder farmers, it is necessary to factor in potential nutrition and environmental benefits. While small holder poultry production has the potential to contribute to sustainable food systems economically, nutritionally, and environmentally, this study found that more emphasis is placed on socio-economic value dimensions. Noteworthy is that in ownership and decision making, gender dynamics inform the role and position of the different actors in a sustainable small holder poultry value chain that is socio-economically, nutritionally, and environmentally sound.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Escherichia coli Isolates from Livestock and the Environment in Extensive Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Ethiopia.

The objective of this study was to characterize the distribution of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from livestock feces and soil in smallholder livestock systems. A cross-sectional study was carried out sampling 77 randomly selected households in four districts representing two agroecologies and production systems. E. coli was isolated and the susceptibility to 15 antimicrobials was assessed. Of 462 E. coli isolates tested, resistance to at least one antimicrobial was detected in 52% (43.7-60.8) of isolates from cattle fecal samples, 34% (95% CI, 26.2-41.8) from sheep samples, 58% (95% CI, 47.9-68.2) from goat samples and 53% (95% CI, 43.2-62.4) from soil samples. AMR patterns for E. coli from livestock and soil showed some similarities, with the highest prevalence of resistance detected against streptomycin (33%), followed by amoxycillin/clavulanate (23%) and tetracycline (8%). The odds of detecting E. coli resistance to ≥2 antimicrobials in livestock fecal samples were nearly three times (Odd Ratio-OR: 2.9; 95% CI, 1.72-5.17; p = 0.000) higher in lowland pastoral than in highland mixed crop-livestock production systems. These findings provide insights into the status of resistance in livestock and soil, and associated risk factors in low-resource settings in Ethiopia.

Performance of Perennial Grass Species under Supplemental Irrigation

The study was conducted at Agricultural Research Centre with the objective of identifying the best-performing perennial grass species under supplemental irrigation and advising the promising cultivated fodder grass for smallholder livestock producers. Randomized Complete Block Design of six perennial grass species with three replications was employed. The six perennial grass species used were T1 (Brachiaria mutica_18659), T2 (Cynodon aethiopicus), T3 (Pennisetum sphacelatum), T4 (Brachiaria decumbense), T5 (Chloris gayana cv. Masaba), and T6 (Brachiaria mutica_6964). The result revealed that agronomic performance of cover, vigor, and height was varied (P<0.001) among perennial grass species. Furthermore, effects of cover (P<0.05), vigor (P<0.05) and height (P<0.001), and dry matter contents (P<0.05) of perennial species over years were found. The dry matter yields and contents of P. sphacelatum (22.85 ton ha-1 and 41.7%) followed by C. aethiopicus (12.53 ton ha-1 and 40.6%) of perennial grass species performed better (P<0.001) than others. The highest (P<0.001) dry matter yield (20.3 ton ha-1) was obtained during the second year of harvest than the first (12.65 ton ha-1) and third (11.36 ton ha-1) year harvests. Similarly, the highest (P<0.001) dry matter percent of the perennial grass species was also found during the second year harvest (50.1%) than the first (25.8%) and third (40.0%) year harvests. The lowest dry matter yield was recorded by C. gayana at the first year (8.5 ton ha-1) and third year (8 ton ha-1) harvests. Likewise, B. mutica_18659 provided the lowest dry matter yield (12.9 tons ha-1) during the second harvest period. Hence, smallholder farmers can preferably be advised to use P. sphacelatum and C. aethiopicus perennial grass fodder crops resources under supplemental irrigation.

ETHNOVETERINARY PRACTICES: A REVIEW OF PHYTOTHERAPEUTICAL APPROACHES IN THE TREATMENT OF LIVESTOCK IN AFRICA: CASE OF CAMEROON

Livestock health is a vital production factor in all production units. In the developed world, a lot of resources are invested in preventive measures unlike in the developing countries where resources are geared toward curative methods of livestock health care. Smallholder livestock production is an important sector of Cameroon’s economy, therefore for a sustainable production there should be a good livestock health care system. In Cameroon, livestock production is entrusted to poor, old and illiterate’s farmers with their indigenous methods of keeping livestock healthy and productive. For Cameroon to increase production, ethno veterinary medicine, which is adapted and affordable to smallholder breeders, should be developed for a sustainable smallholder production. Over 90% of the materials used in ethno veterinary medicine are from plants, hence there is an urgent need to conserve and propagate the medicinal plants already identified for fear of extinction due to random harvesting. Since ethno veterinary plants will be continuously used by smallholder livestock producers, there is a need to development ethno veterinary gardens for a sustainable use and conservation of these plants’ species for future generations. More research is needed to evaluate and validate the ethno veterinary properties of these plants’ preparations through collaboration between the ethno veterinary practitioners and researchers.

A typology of smallholder livestock production systems reflecting the impact of the development of a local milk collection industry: Case study of Fatick region, Senegal

Senegal is a country where millions of livelihoods directly depend on smallholder livestock production activities. Unfortunately, these farmers now face the effects of a changing climate and associated societal responses. In addition, the lack of understanding of the specific farmers’ problems in their respective production systems by assuming homogeneity has led to inappropriate planning of interventions and inefficient utilization of resources. The variations in individual farming systems and local contexts require to understand each system separately to inform decision-makers and relevant stakeholders about specific entries of intervention for farmers based on customized needs. Using a Fatick region case study, different statistical clustering techniques were adopted to develop a livestock typology that reflects the above realities. This typology confirmed the co-existence of three livestock production cluster systems with differences and similarities in their production targets and quantities, market access, animal breeds, and the livestock management system of the animals. The studied region represented a new format of smallholder livestock development, where the implementation of a dairy processor and its milk collection centre created a new dynamic in production activities. Farmers confirmed that the extension services and a consistent market opportunity provided by the dairy processor increased local productivity and offered an alternative source of income but they have also reiterated concerns like the dairy processor’s low milk buying prices which need to be addressed. To harness the growth and the regional opportunities, there is a need to establish robust and continuous collaboration structures between the Government, agro-industries, and producers. These public-private partnerships will help producers lower the cost of inputs and services and increase productivity while boosting local dairy production.

Diverging Discourses: Animal Health Challenges and Veterinary Care in Northern Uganda.

People in northern Uganda are currently rebuilding their lives after a lengthy period of conflict. To facilitate this, the Ugandan government and donors have promoted investment in pigs as an important strategy for generating income quickly and ensuring livelihood security. In this context, animal health issues are an acknowledged challenge, creating uncertainty for animal owners who risk losing both their animals and income. This paper draws on policy documents guiding the veterinary sector, interviews with faculty staff at Makerere University and with veterinarians and paraprofessionals in northern Uganda, and ethnographic fieldwork in smallholder communities. The aims of this study were to contribute to an understanding of the structure of veterinary support and its dominant development narratives in policy and veterinary education and of the way in which dominant discourses and practices affect smallholders' ability to treat sick animals. Particular attention was paid to the role of paraprofessionals, here referring to actors with varied levels of training who provide animal health services mainly in rural areas. The results suggest that veterinary researchers, field veterinarians and government officials in agricultural policy share a common discourse in which making smallholders more business-minded and commercializing smallholder production are important elements in reducing rural poverty in Uganda. This way of framing smallholder livestock production overlooks other important challenges faced by smallholders in their livestock production, as well as alternative views of agricultural development. The public veterinary sector is massively under-resourced; thus while inadequately trained paraprofessionals and insufficient veterinary support currently present a risks to animal health, paraprofessionals fulfill an important role for smallholders unable to access the public veterinary sector. The dominant discourse framing paraprofessionals as “quacks” tends to downplay how important they are to smallholders by mainly highlighting the negative outcomes for animal healthcare resulting from their lack of formalized training. The conclusions of this study are that both animal health and smallholders' livelihoods would benefit from closer collaboration between veterinarians and paraprofessionals and from a better understanding of smallholders' needs.

Analysis of goat production and marketing among smallholder farmers Zambia

Livestock is one of the fastest growing sectors in most developing countries and has been undergoing what has been termed as a Livestock Revolution (Delgado, 2003). The rapid population growth and urbanization coupled with emerging evidence of income growth in developing countries especially in Africa have resulted in a rapid increase in demand for livestock products, and this is expected to continue in the future. These broad demographic and economic trends are creating new and expanding market opportunities for smallholder livestock producers to invest in. This study looks at goat production and marketing in Zambia smallholder farmers. The ability of goats to utilize a broad range of feed resources and adapt to marginal conditions presents an opportunity for income generation among the poor rural households. The study addressed the factors influencing the choice of the marketing channel as well as the socio-economic characteristics affecting the herd size of goats among smallholder farmers. The results show that the choice of the marketing channel used is influenced by the herd size of the animals, the gender of the decision maker, transaction costs as well as the geographical location. The choice of the marketing channel used by the farmer has a bearing on the price received as well as profits. Herd size on the other hand is influenced by the age of the household head, household size, management practices, landholding size as well as off-farm income. Formation of livestock marketing groups is key in addressing the challenge of small herd sizes and high transaction costs.

Molecular prevalence and risk factors associated with tick-borne pathogens in cattle in western Kenya

BackgroundTick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are of global importance, especially in sub-Saharan Africa where they represent a major constraint to livestock production. Their association with human disease is also increasingly recognized, signalling their zoonotic importance. It is therefore crucial to investigate TBPs prevalence in livestock populations and the factors associated with their presence. We set out to identify TBPs present in cattle and to determine associated risk factors in western Kenya, where smallholder livestock production is important for subsistence and market-driven income.ResultsTick-borne pathogen infections in blood samples collected from cattle at livestock markets and slaughterhouses between May 2017 and January 2019 were identified by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products of genus-specific primers. Of the 422 cattle sampled, 30.1% (127/422) were infected with at least one TBP, while 8.8% (37/422) had dual infections. Anaplasma spp. (19.7%) were the most prevalent, followed by Theileria (12.3%), Ehrlichia (6.6%), and Babesia (0.2%) spp. Sequence analysis of the TBPs revealed them to be Anaplasma platys-like organisms (13.5%), Theileria velifera (7.4%), Anaplasma marginale (4.9%), Theileria mutans (3.1%), Theileria parva (1.6%), and Babesia bigemina (0.2%). Ehrlichia ruminantium, Rickettsia spp., and arboviruses were not detected. Exotic breeds of cattle were more likely to be infected with A. marginale compared to local breeds (OR: 7.99, 95% CI: 3.04–22.02, p < 0.001). Presence of ticks was a significant predictor for Anaplasma spp. (OR: 2.18, 95% CI: 1.32–3.69, p = 0.003) and Ehrlichia spp. (OR: 2.79, 95% CI: 1.22–7.23, p = 0.022) infection. Cattle sampled at slaughterhouses were more likely to be positive for Anaplasma spp. (OR: 1.64, 95% CI: 1.01–2.70, p = 0.048) and A. marginale (OR: 3.84, 95% CI: 1.43–12.21, p = 0.012), compared to those sampled at livestock markets.ConclusionThis study reports TBP prevalence and associated risk factors in western Kenya, factors which are key to informing surveillance and control measures.

"If It Works in People, Why Not Animals?": A Qualitative Investigation of Antibiotic Use in Smallholder Livestock Settings in Rural West Bengal, India.

Smallholder farms are the predominant livestock system in India. Animals are often kept in close contact with household members, and access to veterinary services is limited. However, limited research exists on how antibiotics are used in smallholder livestock in India. We investigated antibiotic supply, usage, and their drivers in smallholder livestock production systems, including crossover-use of human and veterinary antibiotics in two rural sites in West Bengal. Qualitative interviews were conducted with key informants (n = 9), livestock keepers (n = 37), and formal and informal antibiotic providers from veterinary and human health sectors (n = 26). Data were analysed thematically and interpreted following a One Health approach. Livestock keepers and providers used antibiotics predominantly for treating individual animals, and for disease prevention in poultry but not for growth promotion. All providers used (highest priority) critically important antimicrobials for human health and engaged in crossover-use of human antibiotic formulations in livestock. Inadequate access to veterinary drugs and services, and a perceived efficacy and ease of dosing of human antibiotics in animals drove crossover-use. Veterinary antibiotics were not used for human health due to their perceived adverse effects. Given the extent of usage of protected antibiotics and crossover-use, interventions at the community level should adopt a One Health approach that considers all antibiotic providers and livestock keepers and prioritizes the development of evidence-based guidelines to promote responsible use of antibiotics in animals.

Benefits and Risks of Smallholder Livestock Production on Child Nutrition in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Livestock production may improve nutritional outcomes of pregnant women and children by increasing household income, availability of nutrient-dense foods, and women's empowerment. Nevertheless, the relationship is complex, and the nutritional status of children may be impaired by presence of or proximity to livestock and their pathogens. In this paper, we review the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. Evidence supports the nutritional benefits of livestock farming through income, production, and women's empowerment. Increasing animal source food consumption requires a combination of efforts, including improved animal management so that herd size is adequate to meet household income needs and consumption and addressing sociocultural and gendered norms. Evidence supports the inclusion of behavior change communication strategies into livestock production interventions to facilitate the sustainability of nutritional benefits over time, particularly interventions that engage women and foster dimensions of women's empowerment. In evaluating the risks of livestock production, evidence indicates that a broad range of enteric pathogens may chronically infect the intestines of children and, in combination with dietary deficits, may cause environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), a chronic inflammation of the gut. Some of the most important pathogens associated with EED are zoonotic in nature with livestock as their main reservoir. Very few studies have aimed to understand which livestock species contribute most to colonization with these pathogens, or how to reduce transmission. Control at the point of exposure has been investigated in a few studies, but much less effort has been spent on improving animal husbandry practices, which may have additional benefits. There is an urgent need for dedicated and long-term research to understand which livestock species contribute most to exposure of young children to zoonotic enteric pathogens, to test the potential of a wide range of intervention methods, to assess their effectiveness in randomized trials, and to assure their broad adaptation and sustainability. This review highlights the benefits and risks of livestock production on child nutrition. In addition to identifying research gaps, findings support inclusion of poor gut health as an immediate determinant of child undernutrition, expanding the established UNICEF framework which includes only inadequate diet and disease.

Livestock across the world: diverse animal species with complex roles in human societies and ecosystem services.

It is anticipated that a 50% to 70% increase in food productivity will be needed to feed 9 billion people by 2050. Livestock provide for about 33% of human protein consumption and 17% of total calories (FAO, 2018). The demand for livestock products is estimated to more than double in the next 20 yr, as a result of urbanization, economic growth, and a change in consumption patterns in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The livestock sector represents nearly 1 billion smallholder livestock producers in developing countries and contributes 40% of agricultural Gross Domestic Product and from 2% to over 33% of household incomes. Smallholder livestock production is largely based on family farming and is key to poor rural people’s livelihoods, food security, and employment creation. Livestock provide food for household consumption, products for income generation, and quick cash when emergencies and external shocks occur (i.e., climatic conditions, diseases, and price volatility). Livestock are important assets that respond to the multiple needs of smallholders (e.g., manure, draught, and hauling power), while also having a cultural and spiritual value. Poultry and small ruminants are generally managed by and provide direct benefits to women (Gueye, 2003; FAO, 2020; IFAD, 2020). Humans and our domesticated animals have evolved in unison over the past 11,000 yr, with domestication frequently portrayed as a relationship delivering benefits to both partners, human and domesticate (Zeder, 2012). Domestication sites and traditional production systems have strong links with local agroecological characteristics (Hocquette et al., 2018). Endurance of traditional production systems has also been closely linked with the maintenance of the health of the local environment by Hocquette et al. (2018). Unsustainable and/or inappropriate management of livestock has contributed to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, emerging infectious zoonotic disease, and increased emission of greenhouse gases (van Zanten et al., 2019). These impacts have increased in severity in line with increasing human population, purchasing power, and urbanization since the mid-20th century (Thornton, 2010). This paper provides a high-level overview of the huge array of contributions made by livestock to human society beyond the provision of food and fiber with a focus on terrestrial, vertebrate species. With a focus on LMICs, we stress the significant role of livestock in sustainable development, including: ecosystems services via nature-based livestock production systems; sociocultural and religious roles; and, contributions to human health and well-being beyond animal-source food.

Changes in farmer animal health and biosecurity knowledge, attitudes and practices: Insights from Cambodia and Laos.

Livestock agriculture in Cambodia and Laos is severely affected by endemic and exotic transboundary animal diseases, impacting household livelihoods and food and nutritional security. Collaborative animal health and biosecurity projects were conducted in each country between 2015 and 2019 aimed at increasing smallholder livestock production through mainly knowledge-based interventions in large ruminant disease prevention, nutrition, reproduction and marketing access. This study's objectives were to identify baseline animal health and biosecurity knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of farmers, and temporal changes in key attitudes and practices associated with improved knowledge. Data for each country were analysed separately, and a formal between-country comparison was avoided due to major implementation and management differences. Binomial logistic regression without random terms compared the overall knowledge scores between 2015 and 2018 in each country, and binomial logistic regression with random terms was used to investigate possible associations between animal health and biosecurity knowledge scores and attitudes and practices. In Cambodia, the average animal health and biosecurity knowledge score increased from 4.8 (±2.2)/17 in 2015 to 13.0 (±2.8)/17 in 2018 (p<.0001). In Laos, the average scores improved from 7.2 (±2.5)/12 in 2015 to 7.9 (±2.9)/12 in 2018 (p=.0003). Clinical signs of foot-and-mouth disease were accurately reported by 100% of Cambodian and 88% of Lao project farmers, and overall, attitudes and practices improved in both countries over the study period. The belief that vaccination can improve livestock value was associated with increasing knowledge in both countries (Cambodia: OR 1.45, 95% CI 1.24-1.68, p<.0001; Laos: OR 1.43, 95% CI 1.16-1.75, p=.0006) as was the use of the services of village para-veterinarians if they had better training (Cambodia: OR 1.76, 95% CI 1.20-2.58, p=.004; Laos: OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.19-3.41, p=.009). However, the source of livestock information (District veterinary officials) was the only practice associated with knowledge in both Cambodia and Laos. The influence of resource scarcity on farmer decision making and knowledge measures was considered of particular relevance to the findings.