Small State Studies Research Articles

Corruption and country size

An elaborate body of academic debate deals with public sector corruption as a detrimental social problem. Considerable attention has been paid to the contextual factors of corruption and the role of wider societal norms and institutions in enhancing or deterring corrupt practices. However, there is only a limited amount of knowledge available on one factor – the size of countries. Are small or large countries more prone to corruption? There are a few studies that aim to clarify this issue, but the findings are contradictory. The aim of the article is to turn to a stream of social science research specifically interested in country size – small state studies – and to explore the relevance of this knowledge for understanding public sector corruption. The analysis shows that country size is a significant contextual characteristic that affects economic, political and socio-cultural factors of corruption. The article raises the need for further studies into causal mechanisms of size by including more small states into international comparative research, turning attention to qualitative comparative studies, and taking a closer look at the link between socio-cultural factors of corruption and country size.

Rethinking Journalist-Politician Relations Using a Small State Framework: Mobile Generalists, Personal Closeness and Professional Distance

ABSTRACT This article examines the relationship between journalists and politicians in Iceland. I illustrate how there are limitations in the existing journalist-source relations literature when it comes to studying journalist-politician relations in a small state like Iceland. Frameworks built on dichotomies between professional and non-professional settings need to be reconfigured to examine the Icelandic case. To do this, I introduce research from “small state studies”, focusing on multifunctionalism and personalism. My study is based on 93 interviews with Icelandic journalists and politicians. Findings illustrate that journalists and politicians in Iceland are mainly mobile and autonomous generalists. The journalist-politician relationship in Iceland can be defined in terms of deep social closeness and, at the same time, professional distance. This is in stark contrast to the professional closeness between journalists and politicians that much of the existing journalist-politician research from larger democracies has shown. Iceland’s social ecology can make impartiality and critical coverage difficult to achieve. The world’s smallest states are routinely absent in research on journalism and politics. My study adds the small state of Iceland to the knowledge base concerning journalist-politician relations and illustrates how existing frameworks need to be expanded to examine these types of relations in other small states.

Intermediary Bodies in International Politics: Conceptual and Historical Observations on Northern Europe’s Small States in the International System in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Abstract The article addresses central problems in the field of small state studies. By revisiting Paul W. Schroeder’s often neglected term “intermediary bodies” in the international system, it attempts to provide a broader conceptual alternative to established categories of description and definition such as “smallness” and “weakness.” In Schroeder’s understanding, intermediary bodies affect the international system beyond functioning as mere buffers. Ultimately, intermediaries influence procedures and outcomes substantially and transcend international politics to another level beyond mere (great) power politics. The subsequent remarks explore the utility and viability of the term by practically applying it to two historical examples: the Danish unitary monarchy within the German Confederation and the role of Finland as an intermediary during, before, and beyond the Cold War. Schroeder’s concept is thereby introduced into varying international contexts and bridges the gap between the history of the 19th century international system and the later modern period.

AN INSIGHT INTO POTENTIAL FISCAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE GREAT LOCKDOWN FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SMALL STATES

The Great Lockdown has caused severe economic distractions to the majority of world countries, and de-globalization trends have started to increase. Globalization was to an extent beneficial for smaller economies, and it was one of the factors contributing to the rise in the number of countries around the world during the last few decades. According to the perceived larger openness and vulnerability of smaller states, it is thus expected that those countries are hit much harder by the economic contraction, as their outputs are much more volatile in relation to the economic cycles. In this context, the paper intends to investigate the exposure of European states to the current lockdown, where the focus is particularly on assessing the fiscal impacts of the lockdown. The main research question is whether there are any differences regarding the fiscal functions of government between smaller and larger states. This is addressed through the cross-national comparative investigation based on data for 44 European countries; and we specifically assess how fiscal activities of government differentiate among smaller and larger states. The results of the study suggest that the effect of the size of the state does not affect the consumption spending of government, but the size variable matters for the transfer expenditures. This piece of research would like to add to the development of the discipline of small state studies, in particular to the issue of their vulnerability and changing global economic environment.

Small regimes in the Middle East: a conceptual and theoretical alternative to small states in a non-Western region

The concepts and theories of small state studies, a sub-discipline of international relations, have been connected to Western political development, making their applicability in regions outside of Europe questionable. Using the framework of the English School, the present article aims at identifying the main elements of small state theory which are needed to be altered to make it suitable for the Middle East and North Africa. Investigating the regional manifestation of main primary institutions which form the basis of the analysis of small states (namely statehood, sovereignty, conflict and cooperation), the research concludes that the leverage of Middle Eastern small states is highly different than it is expected by traditional small state studies, especially due to the regional norms related to statehood and conflict. Consequently, changing our conceptual framework of “small states” to “small regimes” would be also necessary to better interpret how such entities behave in the Middle East or other regions of the world.

Government Size and Quality of Governance: Does State Size Matter?

Purpose: Small state studies has emerged as a discipline, and this discipline has been initially dominated mainly by the issues of vulnerability and a lack of capacities of small states, although these issues have been gradually replaced by the discussions on the potential opportunities of small states, not just their challenges. Within this framework, the consideration needs to be done also on the effect of the state size on the economics, governance and public management, among others. Design/methodology/approach: The current theorizing in small state studies focuses on the specifics of the small economy modelling and governance. The existing economic literature has occasionally stressed the relations between the size of the state and size of government, but with rather mixed empirical results. Moreover, relations between state size and quality of governance has also been emerging issue. This study would like to integrate both approaches. The empirical research utilizes cross-national comparative investigation based on the data for 44 European states; and we specifically assess, in addition to the existing approaches, how budgetary and non-budgetary scope of government differentiates among smaller and larger states. Findings: The results of the study suggest that the effect of the size of the state does not necessary favour larger states in respect to the smaller size of government and quality of governance. Thus, although potential scale economies matter regarding the public services’ provision, the structure of spending, institutional context, and innovations in public service delivery modes also have the role in shaping scope and functions of the government, whereas quality of governance seems to be independent regarding the state size, at least in the European context. Research limitations/implications: Analysis is limited to the cluster of European states, and the results should be interpreted within this context. Originality/value: After the World War II the number of states has increased substantially, in fact, it has tripled. We are currently living in the era of small states, as more than one third of the existing two hundred and more states around the globe are actually small, if we assess the multiple criteria combination. In this context, this paper would like to add to the development of the field of small state studies.

From the ‘Small but Smart State’ to the ‘Small and Entrepreneurial State’: Introducing a Framework for Effective Small State Strategies within the EU and Beyond

AbstractAs the current international system is leaning towards multipolarity, small states face the danger of their influence being diminished and their interests being ignored. Small states in Europe and within the European Union might find themselves in such a predicament. In order to overcome it, they are in need of effective strategies. Literature on the international relations of small states suggests that, despite their limitations, small states are able to pursue their goals and succeed in the international system. Small state studies employ the ‘small but smart state’ concept for a small state that can maximize its influence. Despite being widely used, the latter lacks analytical value and remains a cliché. The objective of this article is to pin down the ‘small but smart’ state strategy and based on that to provide a comprehensive framework for the analysis and the design of effective small state strategies. We suggest that the ‘small but smart’ state strategy shares many elements with the entrepreneurial action, as the latter is extended from its business origins to include a specific strategy. We draw on the field of entrepreneurship to explore the ways it can enhance our understanding of the international relations of small states and we introduce a framework for the ‘small and entrepreneurial state’ strategy. The notion of the ‘small and entrepreneurial state’ adds more depth and rigor into our small state analyses as well as reinvigorates a fragmented and repetitive literature. Last but not least, our ‘small and entrepreneurial state’ approach can be of use for both small state scholars and policy makers.

An Examination and Evaluation of Multi-Level Governance During Migration Crisis: The Case of Slovenia

Paper presents the value added to the analysis of the functioning of multi-level governance in the context of EU. Furthermore, it contributes to the small state studies, as the mitigation of crisis from the perspective of small state is analysed.The aim of the research was to determine whether the multi-level governance during the large-scale crisis was successful and what factors affected the level of success.The analysis utilizes of the case study method, where the crisis responses during the peak of Western Balkan migration route and Slovenia as a small state on Schengen border serve as examples of examination and evaluation.Results show unsuccessfulness of multi-level governance during the crisis, with mostly top-down direction of decision-making, and particularly the subnational level being poorly involved into the process. In addition, also layering of policy creation and implementation can be observed.The results of the analysis also pointed out that the multi-level governance in the case of migration crisis on the Western Balkans Route can be positioned as the type 1 governance, if we follow the outline of Hooghe and Marks (2003).The results indicate that unsuccessful multi-level governance had negative impacts on managing the crisis, as well as on perceptions about EU and Schengen Zone.This study is novel in its content, as it represents the first examination and evaluation of multi-level governance during the EU migration crisis, where Western Balkan route and Slovenia as small state on the outer Schengen zone border serve as a case study for the evaluation.

The Editor’s foreword: The concept behind this issue

A naive attempt at merging Small State Studies and the study of securitisation – a prospectively productive encounter – could take place based on the hypothesis that small states may be particularly sensitive to issues related to which their size seems to aggravate a given threat.

Iceland’s External Affairs from the Napoleonic Era to the occupation of Denmark: Danish and British Shelter

This paper argues that Iceland enjoyed essential shelter, for its development and prosperity, provided by Denmark and Britain. Societal relations with Copenhagen were of fundamental importance in the preservation and evolution of Icelandic identity and culture, providing the foundation of the modern society and leading to the establishment of the Icelandic state. Danish financial backups created the basis for the island’s economic prosperity in the 20th century. Moreover, Denmark provided partial political shelter in terms of significant diplomatic support in guaranteeing trade agreements with other states. Also, Denmark led by example and Iceland followed its foreign policy. On the other hand, Denmark failed to provide Iceland with protection of its land and waters and economic cover when it was in most need. Moreover, the economic cover it did provide was, at times, highly costly. Denmark had been downgraded to a small European power in the post-Napoleonic period. In practice, Britain was in control over the North Atlantic. It guaranteed Iceland’s neutrality and connection to the outside world and markets when the Danish authorities failed in these areas, as long as British interests were also served. Nor did British protection come without cost. Accordingly, this paper confirms the common claim of small-state studies that small states are at the mercy of their larger neighbours. Moreover, our findings indicate that Iceland’s growing autonomy did not affect its need for political, economic and societal cover.

Different Approaches, Different Results in Small State Studies: Complementary Views on the Monarchy and Traditional Governance in Liechtenstein

AbstractThe research note comments on W. Veenendaal's article “A Big Prince in a Tiny Realm: Smallness, Monarchy, and Political Legitimacy in the Principality of Liechtenstein”. It is argued, inter alia, that the phenomenon of “princely self‐restraint” should not be underestimated in Liechtenstein's constitutional reality. The character of the microstate's actual political system strongly depends on the individual personality of the Reigning Prince. A strong monarch who acts as a political actor with his own agenda should not be conceptualized as a neutral traditional leader. From the perspective of many citizens of Liechtenstein, the principality's political system is legitimate since it combines traditional authority and legal‐rational authority in a unique way. Largely due to the powerful role of the government, the microstate is characterized by consensus‐oriented hierarchical governance. Elite surveys can be seen as a useful instrument to overcome some of the methodological pitfalls of the elite interview approach.

Acting small in a large state's world: Russia and the Baltic states

The interest in small states ebbs and flows as important international affairs include small states. Russia's actions and policies vis-à-vis Ukraine, and the resultant intensified apprehension among Russia's smaller neighbours, aim the proverbial microscope at the size and power discrepancies between states. Russia, by most metrics, is a large state and the Baltic states, by those same metrics, are small states. Small-state scholars expect large and small states to act differently. However, the case of Russia and the Baltic states indicates that large and small states do not, in fact, act all that different. This being the case, this article calls into question many of the assumptions made by small-state scholars about the difference between large- and small-state action and argues for changes within small-state studies as a subdiscipline of the larger international relations discipline.

Iceland’s External Affairs from 1400 to the Reformation: Anglo-German Economic and Societal Shelter in a Danish Political Vacuum

The paper applies the assumption that small states/entities need economic and political shelter in order to prosper, to the case of Iceland in the period from 1400 to the Reformation in the mid-16th century. Also, it applies the findings from the first paper in this ‘hexalogy’ (a six-paper series) on Iceland’s external relations in a historical context, i.e. that Iceland enjoyed societal shelter in the Middle Ages, to this period. The aim is both to analyse whether or not Icelanders enjoyed economic, political and societal cover from their engagements with the Danes, English and Germans and to evaluate the validity of the ‘shelter theory’. The paper argues that Iceland enjoyed considerable economic and societal shelter from its encounters with English and German merchants and fishermen in a period in which Danish political cover was formally in place but was not effective in practice. Moreover, the paper claims that the shelter theory, and small-state studies in general, need to take notice of the importance of social communication with the outside world for a small entity/state. Also, the Danish political vacuum in our late Medieval Period provided the islanders with economic opportunities and social engagements with the wider world. This was at the cost of continued domestic clashes between the islanders themselves, on the one hand, and between them and ‘outsiders’ on the other. Our findings indicate that in the case of Iceland there might be a trade-off between the benefits of strict political cover by a single external actor, and the economic and societal opportunities accompanied by a lack of political affiliations.

Scotland as an Independent Small State: Where would it seek shelter?

A planned referendum in 2014 on Scottish independence gives cause to examine that scenario in the light of small state studies and recent European experience. One of the best-supported assumptions in small state literature is that small countries need to form alliances and seek protection from larger neighboring states and/or international institutions. Small European states have generally sought shelter from the European Union (EU) and NATO. This study confirms that an independent Scotland would need strategic, political, economic and societal shelter, and could look for the various elements within existing European institutions, from its closest southern and northern neightbours, and from the US. However, protection may come with a certain cost - just as union with another entity does at present.

The European Union as a Small Power, or Conceptualizing Europe’s Strategic Actorness

The article disputes the notion that the European Union is unfit to develop a strategic actorness for cultural or structural reasons or that it must change in order to facilitate the development of such a presence. Instead, it posits a counter‐intuitive hypothesis: an EU strategic actorness has already emerged and its tenets are not those of a great power — but rather those of a small power. In this article the EU strategic actorness is traced in the Union’s history, in its geopolitical setting, in its power resources and in the attitudes of its leaders. The article shows how the twin concepts of ‘strategic actorness’ and ‘small state studies’ have much to offer in terms of gaining insight into the foreign policies of the European Union.