Small Ruminant Production Research Articles

Trends in Small Ruminant Meat Production–Consumption Gaps in West Asia and North Africa

This paper examines past trends in the small ruminant sector in the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region; it explains the main driving forces of these trends and their implications for the livelihoods of the poor; and addresses technological, institutional and policy issues that should be considered in order to improve the sector's performance and reduce its environmental impact. There has been significant growth in the small ruminant population and production in WANA during the last three decades. However, there is a widening gap between production and consumption. The production growth in the small ruminant sector is attributable to improvements in veterinary services, the provision of feed subsidies and credit for producers, the increased use of alternative feed resources and the progressive intensification of production. Consumption growth results from increases in per capita real income, urbanization and population growth. The benefits of this economic boom, however, may bypass the small producers in the WANA exporting countries, who are often the poorest in the region. Producers and traders in these countries face a challenge in maintaining their share of export markets because of structural and technical constraints that affect their competitiveness. The environmental impacts associated with the expansion of small ruminant production, in terms of rangeland degradation, are another public concern. The challenges are heightened by increasing competition from other suppliers and trends towards lower government subsidies and greater international trade. Technological improvements and policy changes are necessary for the better performance of the small ruminant sector in WANA to ensure that poor small producers are not excluded from the dynamic markets in the region and beyond.

Tannins in tropical tree fodders fed to small ruminants: A friendly foe?

Livestock production systems worldwide rely largely on conventional feedstuffs. The current world food crisis highlights the need to improve the use of local resources for animal nutrition, such as fodder trees and shrubs. The detrimental effects of tropical tannin-rich plants (TRP) on animal production have been frequently described. In contrast, their potential benefits have long been neglected. This paper presents the potential positive effects of tropical TRP on small ruminants either as source of feed or as nutraceuticals with anthelmintic (AH) properties. It also analyses the host behavioral and physiological adaptations associated with exploitation of those tannin-rich resources. Both sheep and goats preferred a mixture of plants even when tannin-free forage was available. Moreover, the preference for TRP by goats and hair sheep were mainly associated with the digestible fraction of fiber and to a less extent with tannin content, which implies that they do not necessarily select against TRP. The addition of polyethylene glycol did not modify the preference or intake of TRP by goats and sheep. Evidence of physiological adaptation to TRP is presented and discussed. Both, experienced hair sheep and goats had saliva with tannin binding capacity, enabling both species to eat higher quantities of TRP which could lead to a higher availability of tannins in the gastrointestinal tract. Tannins in the gastrointestinal tract could be an AH against gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN). Indeed, in vitro and in vivo studies have shown AH effects of tannins from TRP, suggesting their possible use as natural anthelmintics against GIN. This paper supports the change in the current view of tannins in TRP as anti-nutritional compounds. If adequately managed, TRP can be a valuable component of sustainable small ruminant production systems.

Genetics of fibre production and fleece characteristics in small ruminants, Angora rabbit and South American camelids

This paper reviews genetics of fibre production and fleece characteristics in small ruminants, Angora rabbit and South American camelids with a special distinction between single-coated (SC) and double-coated (DC) species. Considering the biology of fibre production, there are variations in coat composition and structure, fibre growth pattern and fibre structure and quality between these two main kinds of fibre-producing animals. In SC species, all fibres are nearly similar in dimensions and are produced from individual follicles that have a very long period, essentially permanent, of active growth without a synchronous phase of rest between follicles. In contrast, in DC species the fleece comprises a coarse outer coat and a fine inner coat with variations of coat composition and structure, and fibre growth pattern according to the season with a well-defined duration of fibre growth. Genetic basis of hair growth pattern, coat composition and fibre structure are different between species. In small ruminants, these coat characters are additive and because of several genes whereas in rabbit, several autosomal recessive genes determine fibre growth, coat composition and structure. In alpaca, the fleece type (Suri or Huacaya) is determined by a single dominant gene. This paper also reviews genetic parameters of fibre production traits in Angora goat, Angora rabbit and alpaca in which many aspects of the genetic basis of fibre production are analogous. There are many traits controlling both fibre quality and fibre quantity, and most of these traits tend to be moderately to strongly inherited so that a rapid genetic progress in any traits is possible and indeed has been achieved. However, there are differences in breeding programmes. In DC Angora rabbit, selection for one single trait, the easy measurable total fleece weight has general beneficial effects on fleece quality. However, because of antagonistic relations between qualitative and quantitative traits in SC species, achieving this goal requires a multi-trait selection index approach. Gene mapping studies have recently identified several putative quantitative trait loci and major genes affecting fibre and fleece characteristics in sheep, goat and rabbit are reviewed. The whole genome sequence of sheep and rabbit will be available in the near future and the use of high-density single nucleotide polymorphism chip will allow fine mapping and dissection of the genetic basis of many production traits including fibre production and fleece characteristics. The application of these techniques will thus contribute to improving the efficiency, profitability and sustainability of small ruminant and rabbit fibre production.

Livestock farming systems and conditions of sustainability in Cuba, the case of small ruminant production

Livestock farming systems and conditions of sustainability in Cuba, the case of small ruminant production

Lungworm infection in small ruminants: Prevalence and associated risk factors in Dessie and Kombolcha districts, northeastern Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted from November 2008 to March 2009 to estimate the prevalence of lungworm infection and to investigate some of the risk factors associated with small ruminant lungworm infections in Dessie and Kombolcha districts, northeastern Ethiopia. Faecal samples were collected from randomly selected 404 animals (240 sheep and 164 goats) to examine first stage larvae (L 1) using modified Baerman technique. One hundred and thirty eight animals (113 sheep and 25 goats) were also subjected to postmortem examination to detect the presence of adult lungworm parasites. The overall prevalence recorded by faecal and postmortem examinations were 36.9% and 62.3%, respectively. Prevalence of lungworm infection was significantly higher (OR = 2.1, 95% CI = 1.2, 3.5) in sheep (40.4%) than in goats (31.7%). The proportions of infection by Dictyocaulus filaria ( D. filaria), Mullerius capillaris ( M. capillaris) and mixed infection were 1.3% (3/240), 28.3% (68/240) and 10.8% (26/240) in sheep; and 20.1% (33/164) by M. capillaris and 11.6% (19/164) with mixed infection in goats. Animals above one year (OR = 8.7, 95% CI = 4.8, 15.6), non-dewormed animals (OR = 10.4, 95% CI = 5.6, 19.3) and those sampled during November (OR = 3.6, 95% CI = 1.5, 8.6) had higher odds of infection prevalence than animals in corresponding groups. The mean count of L 1 larvae of D. filaria and M. capillaris were 5.4 (95% CI = 3.6, 7.3) and 39.3 (95% CI = 33.7, 44.9) in ovine and 4.5 (95% CI = 3.1, 5.8) and 34.1 (95% CI = 27.2, 41.1) in caprine, respectively. The recorded average larval count of the two parasitic species varied significantly in both sheep and goats. This study showed high prevalence of lungworm infections which impairs the productivity of small ruminants, implying the need for control intervention.

Automation of Flock Management and Establishment of Decision Support Systems for Small Ruminant Production

Automation of Flock Management and Establishment of Decision Support Systems for Small Ruminant Production

Small ruminant production in turkey: highlighting in goat production

This paper deals with the effects of structural, governmental and socio-economic conditions linked to small ruminant production, especially goat production. The number of small ruminants in Turkey fell from almost 51,530 in 1990, to 31,761 in 2007. In 1990, the number of small ruminants started to decrease due to structural, genetic and economic reasons such as a lack of state support policies, high costs of inputs, poor performance of local breeds, socio-economic conditions, and migration. In Turkey, the socio-economic and geographical structure make small ruminant production an important profession; it is also a significant source of income in rural regions. 35% of red meat and 12% of milk production is obtained from small ruminants. Although, Turkey has the highest goat population among its border and EU countries, ranks low with milk production. Reasons for the present situation are well evaluated; changes and tendencies in sheep and goat production as well as milk and meat production that are examined and associated with the population of Turkey are widely discussed. In addition, in order to improve the present situation, some technical and structural suggestions are mentioned.

Qualitative analysis of goat and sheep production data using self‐organizing maps

Abstract: The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between different small ruminant livestock production systems with different levels of specialization. The analysis is carried out by using the self‐organizing map. This tool allows high‐dimensional input spaces to be mapped into much lower‐dimensional spaces, thus making it much more straightforward to understand any set of data. These representations enable the visual extraction of qualitative relationships among variables (visual data mining), converting the data to maps. The data used in this study were obtained from surveys completed by farmers who are principally dedicated to goat and sheep production. With the self‐organizing map we found a relationship between qualitative and quantitative variables showing that more specialized farms have greater milk incomes per goat, highlighting farms that have a greater number of animals, better facilities (including milking machines) or animals fed with elaborated diets. The use of self‐organizing maps for the analysis of this kind of data has proven to be highly valuable in extracting qualitative conclusions and in guiding improvements in farm performance.

The role of targeted selective treatments in the development of refugia-based approaches to the control of gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants

Anthelmintic resistance is recognised as a major problem affecting small ruminant production worldwide and now threatens the sustainability of many of these systems. One method that has been proposed to prolong the efficacy of our current anthelmintics is the maintenance of a parasite population in refugia (unexposed to a drug) which will maintain the genes for susceptibility within the parasite population. Management strategies that employ refugia-based methods include targeted or strategically timed whole flock treatments, targeted selective treatments (TST), whereby only a proportion of the flock is treated at any one time, and the dilution of resistant with susceptible parasites. The ability to effectively target anthelmintic use relies on the identification of those animals that will most benefit from treatment. This review explains the concept of refugia, describes the role of refugia-based approaches to the management of anthelmintic resistance and reviews the markers that have been studied as indicators for TSTs as well as the implementation of refugia-based strategies. Recent results suggest that targeting anthelmintic treatment on the basis of anaemia, milk production and liveweight gain may offer a means of reducing anthelmintic usage whilst still maintaining animal performance.

Technical note: Effects of forage protein-binding polyphenols on chemistry of dairy excreta

Forage chemistry can affect intake, digestion, milk production, and manure excretion. Although information is available on the effects of forage protein-binding polyphenols on small ruminant production and manure excretion, little information is available for dairy cattle. The objective of this study was to compare fecal and urinary N excretion of diets formulated with alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) silage versus condensed tannin-containing birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) or o-quinone-containing red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) silages. Significantly higher concentrations of N were excreted in urine by lactating Holstein dairy cows fed red clover and low-tannin birdsfoot trefoil (8.2g/L) than by cows fed high-tannin birdsfoot trefoil or alfalfa (7.1g/L). Fecal N concentrations were similar (33.6 g/kg) among all diets. Dairy cows fed red clover had lower rates of urinary N excretion (5.0 g/h) compared with other forages (6.6 g/h). Fecal N excretion rates were lowest for red clover (4.1 g/h), intermediate for alfalfa (5.8 g/h), and greatest for cows fed high- and low-tannin birdsfoot trefoil (6.4 g/h). The ratio of fecal N to urinary N was highest for high-tannin trefoil, lowest for alfalfa and red clover, and higher in excreta collected in morning than evening. Concentrations of neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in feces, of N in NDF (NDIN) and acid detergent fiber (ADIN), and relative amounts of NDIN and ADIN excreted in feces were significantly higher from cows fed high-tannin birdsfoot trefoil than the other silage types. Study results imply that collection of excreta for environmental studies needs to consider forage polyphenol and diurnal effects on chemistry of dairy excreta.

Endophyte Infected Tall Fescue and Small Ruminant Production: Do We Have a Problem?

Small ruminant production has been expanding in the upper transition zone where tall fescue [Lalium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh.] is the dominant perennial cool-season grass forage species. Although the grass is well adapted to the region, an endophyte (Neatyphadium caenaphialum) that infects most tall fescue plants produces ergot alkaloids, which can cause a toxicosis in cattle that negatively affects reproductive performance and weight gain efficiency. Limited research with sheep indicates a negative impact of ergot alkaloids on physiology and production, but even less research has been done to determine effects of ergot alkaloids on meat goat physiology and production. A better understanding of the influences that ergot alkaloids have on small ruminant growth and development, and reproduction will be needed before management approaches can be developed to reduce or alleviate tall fescue toxicosis.

Garlic and papaya lack control over gastrointestinal nematodes in goats and lambs

Gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) continue to hinder small ruminant production because of anthelmintic resistance and lack of effective products for GIN control in organic production. The objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a commercially available certified organic garlic product, fresh garlic juice, or garlic bulbs as an anthelmintic to control GIN in goats and papaya seeds for GIN control in lambs. In the first experiment, weaned meat goat kids were administered water or a commercial garlic juice product ( n = 7/treatment). In the second experiment, kids were administered water, fresh garlic juice, or fed garlic bulbs ( n = 9 or 10/treatment). In a third experiment, lambs were administered nothing or papaya seed in water ( n = 12/treatment). Naturally infected goats were supplemented with bermudagrass hay and corn/soybean supplement in the first experiment or maintained on bermudagrass pasture in the second experiment or lambs grazed mixed grasses in the third. Blood and fecal samples were collected on Days 0, 7, and 14 after administration of treatment to examine changes in blood packed cell volume (PCV) and fecal egg counts (FEC). PCV and FEC were similar by Day 14 between kids treated with a commercial garlic juice and water in the first experiment. Similarly, PCV was not different among treatment groups in the second experiment. FEC of the garlic juice group was lower than the other two groups on Day 0, but was similar among groups by Day 14. Deworming was required in one goat within each treatment group by Day 7 and in three kids in the garlic juice group and two in the garlic bulb group by Day 14. No changes in PCV or FEC were apparent in response to papaya seed compared with untreated lambs. Based on the alternative plant products used in this study, garlic or papaya seed is not recommended as an aid to control GIN in goats or lambs.

Small Ruminant Production Among Farmers in Iseyin Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT This study examines small ruminants produced by farmers in the Iseyin Local Government Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used in selecting 125 respondents for the study. The majority of the respondents were between the ages of 21−40 years—male, married, and Muslim—with no formal education and a primary occupation of farming. Respondents kept an average stock size of 6–10 goats and 1–5 sheep on a free range. Farmers keep small ruminants as a source of income for spreading risks such as crop failure, for slaughter during social ceremonies, and as a measure of social status. Respondents had occasional contacts with extension agents. Constraints experienced by respondents include theft, lack of capital, drugs, and improved feed. Agricultural development programs should provide livestock extension services to small ruminant farmers and support local sanctions by government enforcement agents.

Analysis of income sources of women farmers in rural areas of Delta state, Nigeria.

Data generated from six communities from four Local Government Areas [LGAs] of Delta State were analysed using percentage distribution and Cobb-Douglas production function showed that about 60%, 26% and 14% of the income of the women farmers were derived from small ruminant production, off-farm employment and crop production. Further analysis showed that crop and small ruminant production have greater potential in increasing the farmer's income. The specific analysis shows that more than 46% of crop farm income comes from cassava production and that more than 75% of income from small ruminant comes from goat production. The paper suggests that agricultural policy and programmes should focus more on cassava and goat production in order to increase income of the women farmers in the study area. Keywords: Income Sources, Women Farmers, Rural AreaGlobal Approaches to Extension Practice Vol. 3 (1) 2007: pp. 66-71

Parasites of sheep and goats and their prevalence in Bokova, a rural area of Buea Sub Division, Cameroon

Small ruminant production in the South West Province of Cameroon is practised mostly by subsistence farmers in the rural areas on natural grass pastures which grow once the primary forest has been cleared. Investigations revealed certain endo- and ectoparasites that were abundant and caused problems on the pastures to both animals and farmers. Haemonchus contortus was the most prevalent species with a prevalence of 94.23%. The highest mean monthly intensity was obtained in August and there was a significant difference ( P < 0.05) from the other months. Strongyle infections were prevalent in 93.18% of the animals examined. In the flock there was a prevalence of 96.25% in sheep as opposed to 86% in goats. The prevalence in the subsistence system was 95.4%. Mean monthly egg counts and prevalence of flukes was highest in December, 187.84 (29.73%). The overall prevalence of flukes was 73.88% with an overall mean intensity of 22 flukes per animal. The most abundant tick species was Haemaphysilis leachi. Genital distribution of ticks was significantly higher ( P < 0.05) in females than males. In the males they were more concentrated around the scrotum.

The Importance of Interactions Among Nutrition, Seasonality and Socio‐sexual Factors in the Development of Hormone‐free Methods for Controlling Fertility

Around the world, consumers are demanding animal products that are produced to agreed standards for human health, environmental management and animal welfare. This has led to the development in Australia of the concept of 'clean, green and ethical' (CGE) animal production based on the manipulation of nutrition ('focus feeding') and the application of phenomena, such as the 'male effect', to provide 'natural' methods for managing small ruminant production systems. With respect to the management of fertility, CGE involves utilization of the inherited responses of animals to environmental factors to manipulate their reproductive processes. The successful development and implementation of this new generation of management tools depends on a thorough yet holistic understanding of the interactions among environmental factors and the ways these interactions affect reproductive physiology and behaviour of the animal. For sheep and goats, a central aspect of CGE management is the way in which ovarian function is affected by three major factors (nutrition, photoperiod and socio-sexual signals) and by interactions among them. Nutrition can exert two profound yet contrasting types of effect on ovarian activity: (i) the complete inhibition of reproduction by undernutrition through the hypothalamic mechanism that controls ovulation and (ii) the enhancement of fecundity by nutritional supplementation, through a direct ovarian mechanism, in females that are already ovulating. A similarly profound control over ovarian function in female sheep and goats is exerted by the well-known endocrine responses to photoperiod (seasonality) and to male socio-sexual signals. The 'male effect' already has a long history as a valuable technique for inducing a synchronized fertile ovulation during seasonal and post-partum anoestrus in sheep and goats. Importantly, experimentation has shown that these three major environmental factors interact, synergistically and antagonistically, but the precise nature of these interactions and their significance to reproductive outcomes are not well understood. Most research to date has been with small ruminants but CGE principles can be applied to any species in a managed environment. For example, a male effect has been reported for lactating cattle and, in the horse, the pattern of seasonality of oestrus can be altered by nutrition. Well-fed mares have a longer breeding season and some animals become non-seasonal. Similar observations have been reported for sheep and goats. By working towards a holistic perspective of the physiology, nutrition, genetics and behaviour of our animals, we will be able to formulate ways to manipulate the animals' environment that will improve management, productivity and profitability and, simultaneously, promote a CGE industry.

SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION IN TWO MIXED-FARMING SYSTEMS OF SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA: STATUS AND PROSPECTS FOR IMPROVEMENT

SUMMARYSmall ruminants are an integral part of mixed-farming systems throughout southern Ethiopia. Yet, they have received little research attention or institutional support. Characterizing the existing small ruminant production systems and analysing their production constraints are important tools to diagnose the status and trends of the systems, and thus to identify areas for future interventions. A survey was conducted between April and July 2004 in the Adilo and Kofele areas of the southern mixed-farming systems of Ethiopia to explore reasons for keeping small ruminants and to evaluate the existing status of and the prospects for the small ruminant sector. Additional information was obtained during discussions with key informants who had experience of small ruminant keeping. Small ruminants fill several roles in the study area. However, the principal purpose of keeping sheep and goats was to generate cash income. Sheep milk consumption was widespread around Kofele unlike most agricultural systems in the country. Nearly all respondents in Adilo reported fattening their sheep before sale, while such a practice was uncommon in Kofele. Informal insurance schemes were evolving among the sheep keepers in Adilo, and these can be considered as entry points for future interventions. The common problem identified from both individual interviews and group discussions was feed shortage. The identification of alternative feed resources and strategic feeding management might be options for development. Small ruminant disease was the major constraint in Kofele, where marshy areas are increasingly assigned for grazing in the rainy season as suitable land is more and more used for cropping. The growing demand for meat from small ruminants, the improving transportation infrastructure and the experience of farmers in small ruminant keeping are providing opportunities to enhance the contribution of the sector. A thorough monitoring of the productive and economic performance of small ruminants is required to capture the full picture of their contribution thereby directing possible intervention areas to maximize benefits to the farmers.

Feeding strategies to increase small ruminant production in dry environments

In the low-rainfall areas of much of Africa and Asia, small ruminants represent the principal economic output, contributing a large share of the income of farmers. Animal numbers have increased over the last two decades, driven by a rising demand for animal products and subsidized feed price (e.g. barley, maize). Side effects of this and changing climatic patterns are increasing desertification, resulting in a decline in rangeland resources, which are often insufficient to meet current demand, coupled with a fall in total feed resources due to overgrazing, ploughing of marginal land and soil erosion. Consequently, goats and sheep are facing serious nutrient shortages. These animals often depend on low quality crop residues (e.g. straws, stubbles) and expensive feed supplements. Technical solutions to some of these problems are available, for example the advantageous use of fodder trees, shrubs and cactus has been demonstrated. Conservation through ensiling and the use of feed blocks (FB) gives greater efficiency of use of a wide range of agro-industrial by-products (AGIBPs). But their adoption has been slow, often because of lack of knowledge of the farmers’ problems and expectations. Adaptive research of technologies and management practices are needed, to provide the policy and institutional support for wider adoption of improved production and resource management practices. Some research–development projects based on the farmer participatory approach have resulted in improved crop and livestock technologies being introduced. On-farm surveys and in-depth economic analyses have shown that these pioneer projects have contributed significantly to the welfare of farmers in dry areas. The lesson learned from these projects is that “by working hand-in-hand with rural communities, agricultural researchers and extension specialists, it should be possible to refine and promote technologies and policies that might help ensure sustainable livelihoods and enhance the productive capacity of drylands everywhere”. Success stories of technology transfer projects include the Mashreq and Maghreb project (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas [ICARDA]-coordinated project).

Intensive grazing system for small ruminants in the Tropics: The French West Indies experience and perspectives

The French West Indies and Caribbean authorities have the objective of increasing small ruminant production to match market demand and develop local economies. This paper highlights research results obtained in the French West Indies over the last 25 years in small ruminant farming. The accumulated knowledge enabled the design of an intensive grazing system whose main characteristics are: (i) three mating periods a year, each one involving half the flock, in order to achieve an 8-month interval between parturitions; (ii) rotational grazing of pastures (1 week in, 4–5 weeks out); (iii) irrigation during the dry season, according to the grass requirement and rainfall shortage; and fertilisation from 0.5 to 1 kg N per day per ha; (iv) stocking rate of up to 40 suckling ewes or 60 suckling goats per ha, or from 1200 to 1600 kg live weight (LW) per hectare for weaned lambs and kids. The average live weights of weaners were 27.9 and 16.3 kg LW per female per year, for ewes and goats, respectively. The yearly post weaning output reached 1482 and 1132 kg LW/ha, for sheep and goats, respectively. The constraints to production are highlighted and some proposals for improved small ruminant farming are suggested.

Small ruminant production in smallholder and pastoral/extensive farming systems in Kenya

A survey was conducted by way of personal interviews with 562 respondents comprising 459 farmers and 103 butchers/traders in selected districts in the central and western parts of Kenya, consisting of three predominantly smallholder and four predominantly pastoral/extensive districts. The study aimed to provide a better understanding of smallholder and pastoral/extensive sheep and goat farming systems in the tropics, by taking Kenya as an example. The results showed that 58% of the pastoral/extensive farmers and 46% of the smallholders indicated livestock as their main activity. Small ruminants ranked closely behind cattle in their importance. Thirty-four percent of the households kept only sheep, 18% only goats and 48% both species. The survey demonstrated the relative importance to the farmers of tangible benefits of farming sheep and goats (e.g., regular cash income, meat, manure and, in the case of goats, milk) versus intangible benefits (e.g., the role of small ruminants as an insurance against emergencies). Regular cash income and an insurance against emergencies were the highest priorities. Seventy-eight percent of the farmers reported animal sales over the previous 12 months of the survey date. Of these sales, the income was spent on school fees (32%), purchase of food (22%), farm investment (18%), medical expenses (10%), off-farm investment (9%), social activities (5%) and re-stocking (4%). Indigenous genotypes were predominant among the pastoralists and mixed crosses predominant among the smallholders. A range of traits: growth rate, body size, body shape, drought tolerance, meat quality, fertility, disease and heat tolerance, prolificacy and temperament were all considered important for both sheep and goats in both farming systems and across the different genotypes. Compared with other pure breeds, the Red Maasai sheep and the Small East African goats were rated poorly in terms of body size, body shape, growth and fertility, but highly in terms of drought and (for the Red Maasai) heat tolerance by both smallholder and pastoralist farmers. In general, crosses were perceived less favourably than indigenous pure breeds. Body size and performance ranked as the most important traits in the choice of breeding males. Approximately half the farmers inherited their males, reared them on the farm and kept them for an average of 2–3 years. Uncontrolled mating within the household's flock was predominant in both farming systems. Over 98% of the farmers reported incidence of disease, especially pneumonia (in pastoral/extensive areas), helminthosis, tick-borne diseases, diarrhoea and foot-rot. Over 95% of the farmers fed supplements in both dry and wet seasons. Pure exotic and indigenous × exotic genotypes fetched higher prices than indigenous genotypes due to their heavier body weight. In conclusion, the foregoing issues need attention in genetic improvement programmes, with more emphasis on the conservation and utilisation of indigenous small ruminant genotypes.