Small Ruminant Production Research Articles

Scalable culture systems using different cell lines for the production of Peste des Petits ruminants vaccine

Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) is considered as one of the major constraints to the productivity of small ruminants in Africa and Asian countries. Currently PPR control is done by vaccination with an attenuated PPR strain (Nigeria 75/1) produced in monolayers of Vero cells grown in roller bottles or static flasks. This work focuses on the production of a PPR vaccine strain using stirred conditions as an advanced option for process scale-up. Non-porous microcarriers (Cytodex-1 ®) were used to support Vero cell growth in suspension cultures. The use of Ex-Cell™ medium could improve cell specific productivities obtained with standard serum containing medium, independently of the type of system used, i.e. static as well as suspension stirred cultures. As an alternative, several cell lines adapted to grow as single cells in suspension (CHO-K1, BHK-21A and 293) and another anchorage-dependent (MRC-5) were evaluated in their capacity to produce a PPR vaccine. BHK-21A and 293 cells grown as single-cell suspension in serum free medium were both suited to produce PPR vaccine with productivities similar to Vero cells, namely 10 6 TCID 50/mL. However, for the 293 cells, these results were only obtained 2–3 days later. CHO-K1 and MRC-5 cells have shown not to be suitable to adequately produce this virus. These results provide further insights into the feasibility of applying microcarrier cell culture technology to produce PPR vaccine in Vero cells as well as in the alternative use of single-cell suspension cultures of BHK-21A, significantly simplifying the existing production process.

Socio-economic determinants of keeping goats and sheep by rural people in southern Benin

An understanding of factors influencing the decision of rural people to keep sheep and/or goats is crucial when formulating technologies and policies that support village-based small ruminant production. The knowledge of such factors will also improve assessment of impact intervention strategies on the livelihoods of rural people. Structured questionnaires administered in 228 households were used to study the ownership patterns of small ruminants in southern Benin. The ownership of goats was higher (91%) than sheep (35%) because goats are not affected by any ethnic or cultural restrictions. Goats are also perceived to be a less risky to invest into compared to sheep. Women represented 71% of the keepers of goats. Predictive models of ownership were developed using logistic regression. The results showed that younger household members (p < 0.05) especially young women (60%) are more likely to own small ruminants. Owners of small ruminants are less likely to be involved in off-farm activities and would often have no access to credit facilities. Gender, ethnicity, and perception of risk associated with species are the major factors affecting people’s choice of species. These findings highlight the financing and insurance roles that small ruminants, particularly goats, are playing in the study area. In order to develop suitable technologies and formulate policies to improve productivity and enhance livelihoods, the constraints to goat production need to be identified, and the local knowledge of the keepers should be investigated.

Anthelmintic resistance in sheep nematodes

Many parasitic nematodes of veterinary importance have genetic features that favour development of anthelmintic resistance, this becoming a major worldwide constrain in small ruminant production. The development of anthelmintic resistance poses a large threat to future production and welfare of grazing sheep. Development of variable degrees of resistance among different species of gastrointestinal nematodes has been reported for all the major groups of anthelmintic drugs. Reliable detection of resistance is important, in order to design appropriate strategies for controlling and delaying the development of resistance. Maintaining parasites in refugia and not exposed to anthelmintics, seems to be a key point, because the susceptible genes are preserved. Targeted selective treatments attract the interest of scientists towards this direction. None of the non-chemical methods for parasite control, i.e. nutrition, vaccines, parasite resistant breeds, is sufficiently effective without anthelmintic support and thus do not offer a practical option. However, most of them reduce reliance on the use of chemicals and are environmental friendly. Extensive research is required to manage resistance and field evaluation of any control suggestion.

Heat production and energy balance of sheep and goats fed sole diets of Acacia saligna and Medicago sativa

We hypothesized that the heat production and energy balance of small ruminants are affected by diet quality, in particular plants with high levels of detrimental secondary compounds, and that there are differences among livestock in the ability to utilize forage. The ability to utilize high tannin fodders would be very important in drylands for livestock production. Energy intake and change in energy balance in sheep ( n = 10; 44.5 kg) and goats ( n = 10; 36.5 kg) were determined when consuming an ad libitum sole diet of either Acacia saligna, a low quality, tannin-rich fodder or Medicago sativa (lucerne hay), a high quality fodder. Dry matter digestibility of A. saligna in goats was higher than in sheep, 44.6 and 25.9%, respectively, but was similar between ruminant species for M. sativa. Daily heat production of goats and sheep when consuming A. saligna was 360.4 and 321.0 kJ kg −0.75 day −1, respectively, and when consuming M. sativa was 432.3 and 445.8 kJ kg −0.75 day −1, respectively. There was no difference between livestock species, but heat production was higher on M. sativa than on A. saligna. Metabolizable energy intake of A. saligna was higher in goats than in sheep, 232.4 and 78.1 kJ kg −0.75 day −1, but there was no difference between goats and sheep when consuming M. sativa. Goats and sheep were in negative energy balance when consuming A. saligna but were in positive energy balance when consuming M. sativa. However, the energy loss in goats was less than in sheep when consuming A. saligna, 128.0 and 242.9 kJ kg −0.75 day −1, respectively, but there was no difference in energy gain between species when consuming M. sativa. Results indicated that (1) the lower heat production when consuming A. saligna than M. sativa is mainly a consequence of the lower dry matter intake and heat increment of feeding; (2) digestibility of high quality forage is similar between goats and sheep, but that goats are better able to digest poor quality forage; and (3) that goats can tolerate higher tannin levels than sheep.

First report of multiple drug resistance in trichostrongyles affecting sheep under field conditions in Italy

Drug resistance in sheep gastrointestinal trichostrongyles is a cosmopolitan major constraint to small ruminant production. Despite reports that anthelmintic drug resistance has become common, there are limited information on the presence of drug resistance in Italy. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of four anthelmintics to control infection in sheep in central Italy. Fifty sheep with fecal egg counts (FEC) > or =150 eggs per gram were selected on each of three farms (n = 150 total sheep) which were randomly allocated to one of five groups. Groups were treated with febantel, levamisole, ivermectin, or moxidectin while the fifth group acted as the control group. A FEC reduction test (FECRT) was conducted on each animal and the mean FEC of each treatment group was compared to that of the control group within farm. Resistance was declared when percentage reduction (R) <95% and the lower 95% confidence interval was <90%. Levamisole (mean R = 89%) resistance was found on all farms and ivermectin (mean R = 93%) resistance was found on two of the three farms. Posttreatment larval cultures showed the presence of Teladorsagia (Ostertagia) circumcincta and Trichostrongylus spp. larvae. Febantel (mean R = 96%) and moxidectin (mean R = 100%) remained effective. This study suggests that drug resistance in sheep gastrointestinal trichostrongyles is present in central Italy and a potential problem which would justify a broader nationwide geographical investigation.

Anthelmintic activity of Croton zehntneri and Lippia sidoides essential oils

Because of the development of anthelmintic resistant populations, the search for new drugs is essential to maintain the productivity of small ruminants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of Croton zehntneri and Lippia sidoides essential oils and their major constituents, anethole and thymol. The effects of these oils and their constituents were determined by in vitro assays with the eggs and larvae of the sheep gastrointestinal nematode Haemonchus contortus. The two essential oils were evaluated on intestinal nematodes of mice at 800 mg kg −1 dose. In the last experiment, the mice were treated with larger doses of L. sidoides, 1200 and 1600 mg kg −1. The essential oils and their constituents prevented more than 98% of the H. contortus eggs from hatching at a concentration of 1.25 mg ml −1 and inhibited more than 90% of H. contortus larval development at a concentration of 10 mg ml −1. At a concentration of 800 mg kg −1, the two essential oils were 46.3% and 11.64% effective against Syphacia obvelata and Aspiculuris tetraptera. At 1200 and 1600 mg kg −1, L. sidoides essential oil's efficacy on the mouse worm burden was 57.6% and 68.9%, respectively. The fact that L. sidoides essential oil was almost 70% effective against mouse intestinal nematodes indicates it should be evaluated against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep and goats.

Accuracy of the FAMACHA system for on-farm use by sheep and goat producers in the southeastern United States

FAMACHA © is a practical on-farm system designed to provide small ruminant producers a tool for improving their management of Haemonchus contortus infections. Although this system has become very popular and widely accepted by small ruminant producers in many regions of the southern United States, there is very limited data reported on the effectiveness of the FAMACHA system when performed by farmers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the FAMACHA system for on-farm use by small ruminant producers during the summer season. Small ruminant producers from Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Puerto Rico were trained to use the FAMACHA system by veterinarians and scientists experienced with this method. FAMACHA scores were assigned at least every 2 weeks by producers to weaned and mature sheep ( n = 552) and goats ( n = 676) of various breeds and ages between April and September 2004. At intervals that varied among farms from 2 to 8 weeks, researchers determined body condition scores (BCS; 1 = thin and 5 = fat) and collected blood and feces from a group of animals selected randomly to determine packed cell volume (PCV) and fecal egg counts (FEC). Two separate anemia thresholds were evaluated; these were defined by either FAMACHA score (≥3 versus ≥4) or PCV (≤19 versus ≤15%). The correlation between FAMACHA scores and PCV or FEC was high for both sheep and goats ( P < 0.001). Specificity was maximized when FAMACHA scores of 4 and 5 were considered anemic, but sensitivity was low. Sensitivity for detecting anemic animals was 50% for sheep and 89% for goats when eye score values of ≥3 were considered anemic and PCV cutoff was ≤15%. The percentage of false negatives (anemic animals not identified by FAMACHA evaluation) was less than 5% in sheep and less than 1% in goats when FAMACHA scores ≥3 were considered anemic and PCV cutoff was ≤15%. In both sheep and goats, predictive value of a negative was greater than 90% for all anemia and eye score categories. These data indicate that the FAMACHA method used by producers is a valuable tool for identifying anemic sheep and goats in the southern United States and Puerto Rico.

Risk factors of gastrointestinal nematode parasite infections in small ruminants kept in smallholder mixed farms in Kenya

BackgroundHelminth infections in small ruminants are serious problems in the developing world, particularly where nutrition and sanitation are poor. This study investigated the burden and risk factors of gastrointestinal nematode parasite infections in sheep and goats kept in smallholder mixed farms in the Kenyan Central Highlands. Three hundred and seven small ruminants were sampled from 66 smallholder mixed farms in agro-ecological zones 1 (humid) and 3 (semi-humid) in the Kenyan Central highlands. The farms were visited once a month for eight months during which a health and production survey questionnaire was administered. Fecal samples were collected at each visit from each animal. Fecal egg counts (FEC) were performed using the modified McMaster technique. Associations between potential risk factors and FEC were assessed using 3-level Poisson models fit in SAS using GLIMMIX macro. Correlations among repeated observations were adjusted for using three different correlation structures.ResultsA rise in FEC was observed two months after the onset of rains. Farmer education, age category, de-worming during the preceding month and grazing system were significant predictors of FEC. Additionally, there were significant interactions between grazing system and both de-worming and age category implying that the effect of grazing system is dependent on both de-worming status and age category; and that the effect of de-worming depends on the grazing system. The most important predictors of FEC in the study area were grazing system, de-worming status and education of the farmers.ConclusionSince several factors were important predictors of FEC, controlling gastrointestinal helminths of small ruminants in these resource-poor smallholder mixed farms requires a sustainable integrated helminth control strategy that includes adoption of zero-grazing and more farmer education probably through extension services. Achieving improved helminth controls in these resource-poor farming systems offers an opportunity to increase small ruminant productivity and hence has a potential of improving the livelihood of the resource-poor farmers.

Comparison of grazing behaviour, dietary overlap and performance in non-lactating domestic ruminants grazing on marginal heathland areas

Abstract During the years 2000–2001, 7 non-lactating beef cows, 40 ewes and 40 does were managed in mixed grazing on a natural heathland vegetation plot (22 ha) with 20% improved pasture (perennial ryegrass) on a hill (1000 m a.s.l.) experimental farm located in the NW of Spain. Samples of faeces and vegetation components were collected monthly to estimate diet selection, using the alkane markers, and diet overlapping level. Animals were weighed monthly to quantify live weight changes and performance of the three livestock species during different periods (spring, summer, autumn, winter) of the grazing season. The percentage of shrubs in the diet was significantly higher in the small ruminants (ranging between 36% and 85%) than in cows (less than 25%) in any period. Gorse (Ulex gallii) and heather (Erica spp., Calluna) percentages were always significantly higher in does than in ewes, except in autumn for heather. Herbaceous component (namely grasses) was higher in cattle (75–99%) than in small ruminants (15–64%). The lowest mean dietary overlap was found between cattle and goats (50.4%), with large differences during the grazing season, ranging between 20% and 70%. The three animal species increased their live weight in the first grazing period (spring), when the mean sward height on the improved area was higher than 6.0 cm. However, when the sward height was lower than 3.5 cm (summer–winter), cows lost weight (− 437 g/day) while ewes and goats were still able to increase their weight (29 and 5 g/day, respectively). Therefore, it seems that small ruminants, mainly sheep, are more suitable than cattle from the vegetation utilization and animal performance points of view, as cows were unable to maintain live weight when the preferred grass availability decreases. Goats were the species that included the highest proportion of heathland vegetation components in the diet, especially gorse, although their performance was significantly lower than in sheep. In consequence, small ruminant production systems could be more sustainable than cattle. The results indicate that mixed grazing of sheep and goats could be appropriate in these vegetation communities, allowing the development of sustainable systems, in which animal performance and the efficiency of resource use are maximized.

Effect of sericea lespedeza ( Lespedeza cuneata) fed as hay, on natural and experimental Haemonchus contortus infections in lambs

Parasitic infection is one of the leading economic constraints in small ruminant production. This problem is exacerbated as the resistance of nematode populations to chemical treatment (anthelmintics) becomes increasingly more common. Condensed tannin (CT) containing plants are being investigated as alternative solutions to address these problems. This investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect of the CT containing forage, Lespedeza cuneata (sericea lespedeza, SL) fed as hay, on Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep. Naturally and experimentally infected lambs were fed either SL or bermudagrass (BG, control) hay for 49 days. All lambs were fed BG hay for an additional 14 days. SL hay effectively reduced (67–98%) fecal egg count (FEC) during the time of feeding for both infection groups. FEC increased in both infection groups after SL feeding was stopped which indicated an effect on fecundity. SL hay feeding also reduced worm numbers, with more of an effect on reducing naturally infected worm burdens (67.2%) than on establishment of incoming larvae (26.1%). SL fed as hay may be more useful to remove existing worms than establishing worms. The decrease in FEC would have the benefit of reduced pasture contamination.

Exploiting the effect of dietary supplementation of small ruminants on resilience and resistance against gastrointestinal nematodes

This paper focuses on targeted nutritional supplementation as a means to reduce the requirement for chemotherapeutic control of gastrointestinal nematode infection of small ruminants and considers the limitations to practical application. Supplementary feeding, particularly with additional dietary protein, can assist resilience to infection during times when metabolic resources are being directed towards dealing with the pathophysiological effects of infection and away from production of meat, milk and fibre. Substantial experimental evidence from studies of both sheep and goats supports this hypothesis particularly in relation to young lambs and kids after weaning and in ewes around parturition. In addition, nutritional supplementation frequently increases resistance to infection, as indicated by decreased faecal worm egg counts and worm burdens. As a result, supplementation has the potential to reduce the requirement for anthelmintic treatment. Practical application of this knowledge can, however, be quite complex in many small ruminant production systems. In general, strategic supplementation should target those times when nutrient requirements are greatest and provide those nutrients which are deficient whether protein, energy, minerals or trace elements. Complexity arises when we consider that nutrient requirements will differ between localities for different species and breed of host, at different stages of growth and reproduction, with differing seasonal availability of forage, with different species of nematodes and different levels of established infections and exposure to infective stages. As a starting point, the provision of nutrients to optimize rumen function and animal performance in the particular production system should assist in maintaining resilience to nematode infection. Provision of nutrients in excess of this requirement, if economically feasible, may yield further benefits in some situations and reduce the need for alternative control measures for gastrointestinal nematode parasites.

Economics and profitability of sheep and goat production in Turkey under new support regimes and market conditions

Turkey has been one of the major sheep and goat producers of Europe and the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region in the 20th century. Sheep and goats followed a declining trend since the early 1980s and are no longer the major meat and milk supplying species. Many factors have contributed to this situation among which are the high population growth rate, low genetic potential of the indigenous breeds, inappropriate breeding strategies, decrease in the area covered by pastures and rangelands, intensification of agriculture and livestock production, better education and demand for high status jobs, support regimes favouring poultry and dairy production, unfavourable market conditions for sheep and goat production. Small ruminant production is extensively and traditionally practiced and is characterised by low inputs and low outputs. In addition, sheep and goat farmers generally are reluctant to adopt novel husbandry methods to improve their income. Under these conditions, the declining trend is going to continue. Unfortunately, no serious efforts are made by the state authorities to introduce support for sheep and goat production under liberal market conditions.

Foraging ecology of goats and sheep on wooded rangelands

Wooded rangelands are a vast grazing land resource globally, including shrublands, savannas and forested ranges. They generally provide forage year-round for small ruminants and they are vitally important for livestock production, especially goats. While the productivity of wooded rangelands is low to moderate, their importance to small ruminant production is considerable. In this paper, we begin by discussing some anti-quality characteristics (mechanical and chemical defences) of woody vegetation that reduce their forage value, deter foraging, and reduce performance and productivity of small ruminants. We then present examples of grazing studies that illustrate how small ruminants select their diets on wooded rangelands. We conclude by discussing why small ruminants select the diets they do within the evolutionary processes of plant–herbivore interactions. Finally, we discuss how this knowledge can be integrated into approaches for sustainable management of wooded rangelands for small ruminant production. Plant defences are abundant in wooded rangelands but they are not a complete barrier to small ruminants as they often use woody plants as part of their diets. Indeed plants with such defences may represent a significant forage resource enabling small ruminants to survive on wooded rangelands with a prolonged dry period when more preferred defenceless species are absent. Future research in plant–herbivore interactions should include investigating how plant biochemical diversity influences herbivore preference for various plant communities, and integrating this information to develop recommendations for managing wooded rangelands.

Socio-economic factors influencing small ruminants management practices in Kaduna State

Socio-economic factors influencing small ruminants management practices in Kaduna State were investigated. One hundred and twenty questionnaires were administered to randomly selected small ruminants farmers in Giwa LGA of Kaduna State. Tools of analysis include descriptive statistics, the Pearson's correlation and stepwise regression procedures. Analysis revealed that certain socio-economic characteristics of respondents such as age, income, flock size, investment, veterinary visits, education, number of small ruminants started with, household size and experience are significantly related to small ruminant management practices. All the predictive variables (age, income, flock size, investment, etc.) contribute about 44% of the variance with household size, stock-owner's experience and number of small ruminants started with, contributing 29.6% of the variance. Constraints with small ruminants production were more of management. Key words: Small ruminants; socio-economics; management practices; constraints Moor Journal of Agricultural Research Vol.4(2) 2003: 274-280

Short Communication: Small ruminant production in Buea subdivision, a humid tropical area of the Southwest province of Cameroon

Short Communication: Small ruminant production in Buea subdivision, a humid tropical area of the Southwest province of Cameroon

Sustainable Improvement of Small Ruminant Production in the Semi-Arid Areas of Lebanon

ABSTRACT Small ruminant production in semi-arid areas could be improved drastically by overcoming feed, health and management constraints. This study aimed at assessing the bio-economical sustainability of small ruminant production in the semi-arid regions of Lebanon through the introduction of an integrated technical package including: a basic health preventive program, feed optimization during critical late gestation period and finally, a basic selection program. Seventeen herders were divided into four groups: Groups A and B were given the full technical package with either soybean and corn meal or barley supplements, respectively. Group C received a basic preventive health program only and Group D was considered the control group. Bio-economic data were collected on a monthly basis over one year and submitted to a cost benefit analysis. Feed cost and pasture rent represented the major obstacles to productivity and contributed 53% and 33%, respectively, to the total financial cost. Groups A and B showed better financial revenues than groups C and D, with Group A having the highest return and lowest risk in terms of total expenditure and total revenue variances. It may be concluded that the integration of preventive health, feed optimization, and basic selection into one program could improve the economical sustainability of small ruminant production systems in semi-arid areas.

Women farmers and extension services in small ruminant production in mountain areas of Turkey

Small ruminant production is the main agricultural activity for farmers in the Taurus Mountain villages in the Southern Mediterranean region of Turkey. Educational and/or training programs concerning animal production toward women in the research area are far from an acceptable level, despite women's significant role in production. A survey was conducted in ten villages in the Taurus Mountains with 100 women to find out women's role in the labor distribution, decision-making, reasons for rearing small ruminants and the importance of the agricultural extension service as an information source. In this research area, women spent an average 2.8 h of a total 12.6 h working day in small ruminant activities. If these activities involved technicalities and money, like vaccinations and stallion, men and/or veterinarians made the decisions. In 94.0% of the farms, the women and girls were responsible for milking. The main reason for keeping small ruminants was the opportunity for cash income. It was determined that the women's attitudes toward the training/educational programs about small ruminant production were extremely positive, but very few programs were offered to them and only 3.0% of the women had a chance to participate in these limited educational programs offered by extension or veterinary services.

Efficiency of feeding Duddingtonia flagrans chlamydospores to grazing ewes on reducing availability of parasitic nematode larvae on pasture

Gastrointestinal nematodes are of concern in sheep production because of production and economic losses. Control of these nematodes is primarily based on the use of anthelmintic treatment and pasture management. The almost exclusive use of anthelmintic treatment has resulted in development of anthelmintic resistance which has led to the need for other parasite control options to be explored. The blood sucking abomasal parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus causes severe losses in small ruminant production in the warm, humid sub-tropic and tropics. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a nematode trapping fungus, Duddingtonia flagrans, in reducing availability of parasitic nematode larvae, specifically H. contortus, on pasture. Chlamydospores of D. flagrans were mixed with a supplement feed which was fed daily to a group of crossbred ewes for the duration of the summer grazing season. A control group was fed the same supplement feed without chlamydospores. A reduction in infective larval numbers was observed in fecal cultures of the fungus-fed group. Herbage samples from the pasture grazed by the fungus-fed group also showed a reduction in infective larvae. There were no significant ( P>0.05) differences in overall fecal egg count, packed cell volume or animal weight between fungus-fed and control groups. Tracer animals were placed on the study pastures at the end of the study to assess pasture infectivity. Although tracer animals were only two per group, those that grazed with the fungus-fed group had substantially reduced (96.8%) nematode burdens as compared to those from the control group pasture. Results demonstrated that the fungus did have activity against nematode larvae in the feces which reduced pasture infectivity and subsequently nematode burdens in tracer animals. This study showed that D. flagrans, fed daily to grazing ewes, was an effective biological control agent in reducing a predominantly H. contortus larval population on pasture.

Drug resistance in nematodes: a paper tiger or a real problem?

The purpose of this review is to illustrate where drug resistance in parasitic nematodes has become a major problem. The mechanisms underlying anthelmintic resistance, the possible reasons for the development of anthelmintic resistance, and recommendations to minimize the further development of anthelmintic resistance in humans will be addressed. Resistance has developed to all drugs of the few anthelmintic classes currently available. Drug resistance has become a major threat to sheep production in Australia, New Zealand, Great Britain and South Africa. In addition, the treatment of nematode infections in horses has become insufficient because of anthelmintic resistance, whereas resistance in cattle has recently been found in New Zealand and southern America. In contrast, anthelmintic resistance to human helminths has only been reported anecdotally. The rate of development of anthelmintic resistance is determined by the resistance gene frequency and by selection pressure, as illustrated by the concept of 'worms in refugia' in ovine nematode infections. Although anthelmintic resistance has become a major constraint in livestock production of small ruminants, drug resistance is currently not a major issue in the treatment of human nematode infections. However, if recent community treatment programmes are pursued injudiciously, the inevitable evolutionary consequence of anthelmintic resistance in humans might emerge sooner rather than later.

Classification of Cattle and Small Ruminant Production Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

This paper presents a classification of cattle and small ruminant production systems in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). A review of literature has shown that there can be as many classifications of livestock systems as there are criteria to classify them, hence the need for a systematic classification to aid the analysis of livestock development in SSA. Agroecological zones principally determine cattle and small ruminant production systems in SSA. A classification of cattle and small ruminant systems is presented based on the length of growing period, rainfall, cropping and mean temperature during the growing period. The main traditional ruminant production systems are grassland-based (pastoral) systems, occurring mainly in areas with less than 90 days of plant-growing period, and mixed production systems occurring in areas with more than 90 days of plant growing. Mixed systems can be further differentiated on the basis of temperature during the growing period, into lowland mixed systems (semi-arid mixed, subhumid mixed and humid mixed) and highland mixed systems (highland mixed and smallholder dairy system, which is a non-traditional system). The non-traditional ruminant production systems are ranching and smallholder dairy systems. The authors conclude that, although a further categorization of livestock systems at individual country level may be produced, the classification presented here could be a basis for the analysis of livestock production in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially in livestock development analyses in which the individual livestock system is the unit of analysis.