Photon Counting Research Articles

Low noise InGaAs/InP single-photon detector with DC-1 GHz tunable gate frequency

Low noise InGaAs/InP single-photon detector with DC-1 GHz tunable gate frequency

Overcoming photon and spatiotemporal sparsity in fluorescence lifetime imaging with SparseFLIM.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) provides quantitative readouts of biochemical microenvironments, holding great promise for biomedical imaging. However, conventional FLIM relies on slow photon counting routines to accumulate sufficient photon statistics, restricting acquisition speeds. Here we demonstrate SparseFLIM, an intelligent paradigm for achieving high-fidelity FLIM reconstruction from sparse photon measurements. We develop a coupled bidirectional propagation network that enriches photon counts and recovers hidden spatial-temporal information. Quantitative analysis shows over tenfold photon enrichment, dramatically improving signal-to-noise ratio, lifetime accuracy, and correlation compared to the original sparse data. SparseFLIM enables reconstructing spatially and temporally undersampled FLIM at full resolution and channel count. The model exhibits strong generalization across experimental modalities including multispectral FLIM and in vivo endoscopic FLIM. This work establishes deep learning as a promising approach to enhance fluorescence lifetime imaging and transcend limitations imposed by the inherent codependence between measurement duration and information content.

First observation of single photons in a CRESST detector and new dark matter exclusion limits

The main goal of the CRESST-III experiment is the direct detection of dark matter particles via their scattering off target nuclei in cryogenic detectors. In this work we present the results of a silicon-on-sapphire (SOS) detector with a mass of 0.6 g and an energy threshold of (6.7±0.2) eV with a baseline energy resolution of (1.0±0.2) eV. This allowed for a calibration via the detection of single luminescence photons in the eV-range, which could be observed in CRESST for the first time. We present new exclusion limits on the spin-independent and spin-dependent dark matter-nucleon cross section that extend to dark matter particle masses of less than 100 MeV/c2. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Evaluating small coronary stents with dual-source photon-counting computed tomography: effect of different scan modes on image quality and performance in a phantom.

The study aimed to assess the feasibility and image quality of dual-source photon-counting detector computed tomography (PCD-CT) in evaluating small-sized coronary artery stents with respect to different acquisition modes in a phantom model. Utilizing a phantom setup mimicking the average patient's water-equivalent diameter, we examined six distinct coronary stents inflated in a silicon tube, with stent sizes ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 mm, applying four different CT acquisition modes of a dual-source PCD-CT scanner: "high-pitch," "sequential," "spiral" (each with collimation of 144 × 0.4 mm and full spectral information), and "ultra-high-resolution (UHR)" (collimation of 120 × 0.2 mm and no spectral information). Image quality and diagnostic confidence were assessed using subjective measures, including a 4-point visual grading scale (4 = excellent; 1 = non-diagnostic) utilized by two independent radiologists, and objective measures, including the full width at half maximum (FWHM). A total of 24 scans were acquired, and all were included in the analysis. Among all CT acquisition modes, the highest image quality was obtained for the UHR mode [median score: 4 (interquartile range (IQR): 3.67-4.00)] (P = 0.0015, with 37.5% rated as "excellent"), followed by the sequential mode [median score: 3.5 (IQR: 2.84-4.00)], P = 0.0326 and the spiral mode [median score: 3.0 (IQR: 2.53-3.47), P > 0.05]. The lowest image quality was observed for the high-pitch mode [median score: 2 (IQR: 1- 3), P = 0.028]. Similarly, diagnostic confidence for evaluating stent patency was highest for UHR and lowest for high-pitch (P < 0.001, respectively). Measurement of stent dimensions was accurate for all acquisition modes, with the UHR mode showing highest robustness (FWHM for sequential: 0.926 ± 0.061 vs. high-pitch: 0.990 ± 0.083 vs. spiral: 0.962 ± 0.085 vs. UHR: 0.941 ± 0.036, P = non-significant, respectively). Assessing small-sized coronary stents using PCD-CT technology is feasible. The UHR mode offers superior image quality and diagnostic confidence, while all modes show consistent and accurate measurements. These findings highlight the potential of PCD-CT technology, particularly the UHR mode, to enhance non-invasive coronary stent evaluation. Confirmatory research is necessary to influence the guidelines, which recommend cardiac CT only for stents of 3 mm or larger.

Minimal lateral damage fabrication of high-temperature superconducting nanowires via focused helium ion beam irradiation

Abstract The low temperature superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors have become a key infrared photon counting technology in communication and astronomy applications. However, the constrained physical space of devices demands for high-performance superconducting detectors capable of operation at higher temperature. To date, the fabrication of high temperature superconductor nanowires is still facing seriously uneven lateral damage during ion etching process. In this work, we report a promising fabricating method for high-temperature superconducting YBa2Cu3O7−x (YBCO) nanowires, using a focused helium ion beam to minimize the lateral damage of the cut. Based on the simulation, we designed tangent circles and adjacent isosceles triangles to replace lines in cutting nanowires for reducing the superimposed damage of He+ ions. The lateral damage of single helium ion cut has been reduced with a superimposed damage width decrease from 58.8 nm to 29.7 nm. This work provides a platform for boosting the YBCO nanowires to achieve single photon detection.&amp;#xD;

Satellite dish-like nanocomposite as a breakthrough in single photon detection for highly developed optoelectronic applications

A nanocomposite with a unique satellite dish-like structure, termed arsenic (III) oxide iodide (AsO2I)/polypyrrole (Ppy) intercalated with iodide ions (AsO2I/Ppy-I), has been meticulously developed via a two-step process. It features natural satellite dish-like nanostructures, potentially serving as nanoresonators for efficient single photon absorption. With a bandgap of 2.8 eV, the AsO2I/Ppy-I nanocomposite efficiently absorbs photons in the UV and visible light regions, making it suitable for single photon detection. Impressive performance is seen in photocurrent sensitivity measurements, recording values of 0.017 mA.cm−2 under white light and 0.009 mA.cm−2 under monochromatic light at 340 nm. Additionally, it exhibits high responsivity and detectivity, with peak values at wavelengths of 340 nm and 440 nm associated with the diameter of the Satellite dish nanostructure. Cost-effectiveness and simple synthesis methods make it attractive for industrial applications, while its unique structural characteristics and enhanced optical properties position it as a valuable asset in optoelectronic technologies. It holds promise as a leading material in advanced quantum technology, marking a significant leap forward in optoelectronic technologies, with potential applications in quantum cryptography, communication, and computing.

Ultra-sensitive light detection technologies based on single-photon detectors: a review

Ultra-sensitive light detection technologies based on single-photon detectors: a review

Gadolinium-based coronary CT angiography on a clinical photon-counting-detector system: a dynamic circulating phantom study

BackgroundCoronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) offers non-invasive diagnostics of the coronary arteries. Vessel evaluation requires the administration of intravenous contrast. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the utility of gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) as an alternative to iodinated contrast for CCTA on a first-generation clinical dual-source photon-counting-detector (PCD)-CT system.MethodsA dynamic circulating phantom containing a three-dimensional-printed model of the thoracic aorta and the coronary arteries were used to evaluate injection protocols using gadopentetate dimeglumine at 50%, 100%, 150%, and 200% of the maximum approved clinical dose (0.3 mmol/kg). Virtual monoenergetic image (VMI) reconstructions ranging from 40 keV to 100 keV with 5 keV increments were generated on a PCD-CT. Contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) was calculated from attenuations measured in the aorta and coronary arteries and noise measured in the background tissue. Attenuation of at least 350 HU was deemed as diagnostic.ResultsThe highest coronary attenuation (441 ± 23 HU, mean ± standard deviation) and CNR (29.5 ± 1.5) was achieved at 40 keV and at the highest GBCA dose (200%). There was a systematic decline of attenuation and CNR with higher keV reconstructions and lower GBCA doses. Only reconstructions at 40 and 45 keV at 200% and 40 keV at 150% GBCA dose demonstrated sufficient attenuation above 350 HU.ConclusionCurrent PCD-CT protocols and settings are unsuitable for the use of GBCA for CCTA at clinically approved doses. Future advances to the PCD-CT system including a 4-threshold mode, as well as multi-material decomposition may add new opportunities for k-edge imaging of GBCA.Relevance statementPatients allergic to iodine-based contrast media and the future of multicontrast CT examinations would benefit greatly from alternative contrast media, but the utility of GBCA for coronary photon-counting-dector-CT angiography remains limited without further optimization of protocols and scanner settings.Key PointsGBCA-enhanced coronary PCD-CT angiography is not feasible at clinically approved doses.GBCAs have potential applications for the visualization of larger vessels, such as the aorta, on PCD-CT angiography.Higher GBCA doses and lower keV reconstructions achieved higher attenuation values and CNR.Graphical

The pericoronary adipose tissue attenuation in CT strongly depends on kernels and iterative reconstructions.

To investigate the influence of kernels and iterative reconstructions on pericoronary adipose tissue (PCAT) attenuation in coronary CT angiography (CCTA). Twenty otherwise healthy subjects (16 females; median age 52 years) with atypical chest pain, low risk of coronary artery disease (CAD), and without CAD in photon-counting detector CCTA were included. Images were reconstructed with a quantitative smooth (Qr36) and three vascular kernels of increasing sharpness levels (Bv36, Bv44, Bv56). Quantum iterative reconstruction (QIR) was either switched-off (QIRoff) or was used with strength levels 2 and 4. The fat-attenuation-index (FAI) of the PCAT surrounding the right coronary artery was calculated in each dataset. Histograms of FAI measurements were created. Intra- and inter-reader agreements were determined. A CT edge phantom was used to determine the edge spread function (ESF) for the same datasets. Intra- and inter-reader agreement of FAI was excellent (intra-class correlation coefficient = 0.99 and 0.98, respectively). Significant differences in FAI were observed depending on the kernel and iterative reconstruction strength level (each, p < 0.001), with considerable inter-individual variation up to 34 HU and intra-individual variation up to 33 HU, depending on kernels and iterative reconstruction levels. The ESFs showed a reduced range of edge-smoothing with increasing kernel sharpness, causing an FAI decrease. Histogram analyses revealed a narrower peak of PCAT values with increasing iterative reconstruction levels, causing aFAI increase. PCAT attenuation determined with CCTA heavily depends on kernels and iterative reconstruction levels both within and across subjects. Standardization of CT reconstruction parameters is mandatory for FAI studies to enable meaningful interpretations. Question Do kernels and iterative reconstructions influence pericoronary adipose tissue (PCAT) attenuation in coronary CT angiography (CCTA)? Findings Significant differences in fat-attenuation-index (FAI) were observed depending on the kernel and iterative reconstruction strength level with considerable inter- and intra-individual variation. Clinical relevance PCAT attenuation heavily depends on kernels and iterative reconstructions requiring CT reconstruction parameter standardization to enable meaningful interpretations of fat-attenuation differences across subjects.

Dynamics of Vortex Matter in 2D Gapless Superconducting Materials with Impurities.

The recent interest in using ultrafast single-photon detectors in research and commercial applications has garnered significant attention from the scientific community. The dynamic event in the detection process consists of a photon causing local destruction of the order parameter, and then the applied current dissipates heat, bringing the material even more out of the superconducting state and then spiking a voltage peak in a measurement device. We investigated the role of superconducting and thermal parameters of the Generalized Time-Dependent Ginzburg-Landau (GTDGL) theory within the event of the first vortex penetration and the thermal dissipation in superconductors near the critical temperature. Moreover, in the vicinity of the Bogomolny point of the static Ginzburg-Landau theory, where κ ≈ 1/√2 and T → Tc, it has been found severely different vortex profiles. We point out that within the GTDGL theory, the presence of impurities (usual or paramagnetic) influences flux penetration and enhances the dissipation of heat, causing anomalous vortex configurations.

Temperature-dependent Rotational Dynamics of a 3-(benzo[d]Thiazol-2-yl)-7-diethylamino)-2H-chromen-2-one non-polar Probe in n-pentanol, n-nonanol, and n-decanol Solvents.

Rotational dynamics of non-polar probe 3-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-7-(diethylamino)-2H-chromen-2-one (3BT7D2H-one) and in n-pentanol, n-nonanol, and n-decanol alcohol solvents is studied using steady-state fluorescence depolarization and time-correlated single photon counting technique with varying temperature. Experimental observations indicate that 3BT7D2H-one rotates slowly in n-decanol solvent compared to other chosen solvents. Rotational motion is analyzed using the Stoke 's-Einstein-Debye (SED) model. 3BT7D2H-one solute rotational dynamics is satisfactorily described by the SED slip boundary limit in all three solvents.

Exploring charge sharing compensation using inter-pixel coincidence counters for photon counting detectors by deep-learning from local information

Photon counting detectors (PCDs) have well-acknowledged advantages in computed tomography (CT) imaging. However, charge sharing and other problems prevent PCDs from fully realizing the anticipated potential in diagnostic CT. PCDs with multi-energy inter-pixel coincidence counters (MEICC) have been proposed to provide particular information about charge sharing, thereby achieving lower Cramér-Rao Lower Bound (CRLB) than conventional PCDs when assessing its performance by estimating material thickness or virtual monochromatic attenuation integrals (VMAIs). This work explores charge sharing compensation using local spatial coincidence counter information for MEICC detectors through a deep-learning method.&#xD;Approach: By analyzing the impact of charge sharing on photon count detection, we designed our network with a focus on individual pixels. Employing MEICC data of patches centered on POIs as input, we utilized local information for effective charge sharing compensation. The output was VMAI at different energies to address real detector issues without knowledge of primary counts. To achieve data diversity, a fast and online data generation method was proposed to provide adequate training data. A new loss function was introduced to reduce bias for training with high-noise data. The proposed method was validated by Monte Carlo (MC) simulation data for MEICC detectors that were compared with conventional PCDs. &#xD;Main-Results: For conventional data as a reference, networks trained on low-noise data yielded results with a minimal bias (about 0.7%) compared with > 3% for the polynomial fitting method. The results of networks trained on high-noise data exhibited a slightly increased bias (about 1.3%) but a significantly reduced standard deviation (STD) and normalized root mean square error (NRMSE). The simulation study of the MEICC detector demonstrated superior compared to the conventional detector across all the metrics. Specifically, for both networks trained on high-noise and low-noise data, their biases were reduced to about 1% and 0.6%, respectively. Meanwhile, the results from a MEICC detector were of about 10% lower noise than a conventional detector. Moreover, an ablation study showed that the additional loss function on bias was beneficial for training on high-noise data.&#xD;Significance: We demonstrated that a network-based method could utilize local information in PCDs effectively by patch-based learning to reduce the impact of charge sharing. MEICC detectors provide very valuable local spatial information by additional coincidence counters. Compared with MEICC detectors, conventional PCDs only have limited local spatial information for charge sharing compensation, resulting in higher bias and standard deviation in VMAI estimation with the same patch strategy.&#xD.

Quantitative Analysis of Acquisition Speed of High-Precision FLIM Technologies via Simulation and Modeling

In practical applications such as cancer diagnosis and industrial detection, there is a critical demand for fast fluorescence lifetime imaging (Fast-FLIM). The Fast-FLIM systems suitable for complex environments are typically achieved by enhancing the hardware performance of time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC), with an acquisition speed of about a few frames per second (fps). However, due to the limitation of single-photon acquisition, the imaging speed is still far from the demand of practical application. The synchroscan streak camera (SC) maps signals from the temporal dimension to the spatial dimension, effectively overcoming the long acquisition time caused by single-photon acquisition. This paper constructs a method to calculate the acquisition time for the TCSPC-FLIM and SC-FLIM systems, and it quantitatively compares the speed. The research demonstrates that the main factors limiting the acquisition speed of the FLIM systems are the photon emission rate, the photon counting rate, the required SNR, the dwell time, and the number of parallel channels. In high-quality and large-scale lifetime imaging, the acquisition speed of the SC-FLIM is at least 104 times faster than that of the TCSPC-FLIM. Therefore, the synchroscan streak camera has more significant potential to promote Fast-FLIM.

Unsupervised Denoising in Spectral CT: Multi-Dimensional U-Net for Energy Channel Regularisation

Spectral Computed Tomography (CT) is a versatile imaging technique widely utilized in industry, medicine, and scientific research. This technique allows us to observe the energy-dependent X-ray attenuation throughout an object by using Photon Counting Detector (PCD) technology. However, a major drawback of spectral CT is the increase in noise due to a lower achievable photon count when using more energy channels. This challenge often complicates quantitative material identification, which is a major application of the technology. In this study, we investigate the Noise2Inverse image denoising approach for noise removal in spectral computed tomography. Our unsupervised deep learning-based model uses a multi-dimensional U-Net paired with a block-based training approach modified for additional energy-channel regularization. We conducted experiments using two simulated spectral CT phantoms, each with a unique shape and material composition, and a real scan of a biological sample containing a characteristic K-edge. orangeMeasuring the peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and structural similarity index (SSIM) for the simulated data and the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) for the real-world data, our approach not only outperforms previously used methods—namely the unsupervised Low2High method and the total variation-constrained iterative reconstruction method—but also does not require complex parameter tuning.

Surface roughness metrology with a raster scanning single photon LiDAR

We explore a novel, to the best of our knowledge, approach to surface roughness metrology utilizing a single pixel, raster scanning single photon counting LiDAR system. It uses a collimated laser beam in picosecond pulses to probe a surface, capturing the changes of back-scattered photons from different points on the surface into a single mode fiber, and counting them using a single photon detector. These back-scattered photons carry speckle noise produced by the rough surface, and the variation in photon counts over different illumination points across the surface becomes a good measure of its roughness. By analyzing the variation frequency as the LiDAR scans over the surface using machine learning techniques, we demonstrate general measurements of surface roughness from 1.21 (1.27±4.51) to 102.01 (87.97±10.55) microns.

Contrast-to-noise ratio comparison between X-ray fluorescence emission tomography and computed tomography.

We provide a comparison of X-ray fluorescence emission tomography (XFET) and computed tomography (CT) for detecting low concentrations of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in soft tissue and characterize the conditions under which XFET outperforms energy-integrating CT (EICT) and photon-counting CT (PCCT). We compared dose-matched Monte Carlo XFET simulations and analytical fan-beam EICT and PCCT simulations. Each modality was used to image a numerical mouse phantom and contrast-depth phantom containing GNPs ranging from 0.05% to 4% by weight in soft tissue. Contrast-to-noise ratios (CNRs) of gold regions were compared among the three modalities, and XFET's detection limit was quantified based on the Rose criterion. A partial field-of-view (FOV) image was acquired for the phantom region containing 0.05% GNPs. For the mouse phantom, XFET produced superior CNR values ( , 21.6, and 3.4) compared with CT images obtained with both energy-integrating ( , 4.6, and 1.5) and photon-counting ( , 7.7, and 2.0) detection systems. More generally, XFET outperformed CT for superficial imaging depths ( ) for gold concentrations at and above 0.5%. XFET's surface detection limit was quantified as 0.44% for an average phantom dose of 16mGy compatible with in vivo imaging. XFET's ability to image partial FOVs was demonstrated, and 0.05% gold was easily detected with an estimated dose of to a localized region of interest. We demonstrate a proof of XFET's benefit for imaging low concentrations of gold at superficial depths and the feasibility of XFET for in vivo metal mapping in preclinical imaging tasks.

Additional Diagnostic Value of Cone Beam CT Myelography Performed After Digital Subtraction Myelography for Detecting CSF-venous Fistulas.

CSF-venous fistulas are a common cause of spontaneous intracranial hypotension. The diagnosis and precise localization of these fistulas hinges on specialized myelographic techniques, which mainly include decubitus digital subtraction myelography and decubitus CT myelography (using either energy integrating or photon counting detector CT). A previous case series showed that cone beam CT myelography, performed as an adjunctive tool with digital subtraction myelography, increased the detection of CSF-venous fistulas. Here, we sought to determine the additive yield of cone beam CT myelography for CSF-venous fistula detection in a consecutive series of patients with spontaneous intracranial hypotension who underwent concurrent decubitus digital subtraction myelography and cone beam CT myelography. We retrospectively searched our institutional database for all consecutive patients who underwent decubitus digital subtraction myelography with adjunctive cone beam CT myelography between 8/5/2021 and 8/5/2024. We excluded any patients harboring extradural CSF on spine imaging, not meeting International Classification of Headache Disorders (3rd edition) criteria for spontaneous intracranial hypotension, or not having undergone technically successful cone beam CT myelography in combination with digital subtraction myelography. All myelographic images were independently reviewed by two neuroradiologists. We calculated the diagnostic yield of both myelographic tests for localizing a CSF-venous fistula. We identified 100 patients who underwent decubitus digital subtraction myelography with adjunctive cone beam CT. We excluded 15 patients based on above criteria. 59/85 patients had a single definitive CSF-venous fistula. Among positive cases, the fistula was visible on digital subtraction myelography in 38/59 patients and visible on cone beam CT myelography in 59/59 patients. In 26/85 patients, no definitive fistula was identified on either modality. Cone beam CT myelography increased the diagnostic yield for CSF-venous fistula detection and may be a useful addition to digital subtraction myelography. CB-CTM = cone beam CT myelography; CVF = CSF-venous fistula; DSM = digital subtraction myelography; EID-CTM = energy integrating detector CT myelography; PCD CTM = photon counting detector CT myelography; SIH = spontaneous intracranial hypotension.

Evaluation of a-NbGe films as a candidate material for superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD) applications

Evaluation of a-NbGe films as a candidate material for superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD) applications

Photon-counting detector computed tomography : Paradigm shift in cardiac CT imaging

The introduction of photon-counting detector computed tomography (PCD-CT) heralds anew generation of cardiac imaging. This review discusses the current scientific literature to determine the incremental value of PCD-CT in cardiac imaging. Discussion of currently available literature regarding cardiac PCD-CT from aradiological perspective. Since its market introduction in 2021, numerous studies have explored the advantages of this new technology in the field of cardiac imaging, including improved image quality through superior spatial resolution, ahigher contrast-to-noise ratio, reduced artifacts, and lower radiation dose. While preliminary studies have been promising, it remains to be seen how the advantages of PCD-CT will affect clinical guidelines for cardiac CT.

Image quality of photon-counting detector CT for visualization of maxillofacial anatomy in comparison with energy-integrating detector CT and intraoperative C-arm CBCT

BackgroundAccurate diagnostic imaging is crucial for managing facial fractures, which are a common global occurrence. This study aimed to compare the image quality of Photon Counting Detector CT (PCD-CT) with state-of-the-art Energy Integrating Detector CT (EID-CT) and intraoperative C-arm CBCT (CBCT) in visualizing maxillofacial anatomy using a cadaveric sheep head model. MethodsThree fresh sheep heads were used, with surgical interventions simulating metal implants in two of them. The specimens were imaged using PCD-CT, EID-CT, and CBCT, following which quantitative assessments of signal-to-noise ratio, sharpness, and artifacts were conducted. A visual grading study was performed by six observers, using criteria focusing on the mandible, orbit, and soft tissues. Statistical analyses included Friedman tests for comparing modalities and Kendall’s W and Gwet’s AC1 for assessing inter- and intrarater agreement. ResultsPCD-CT demonstrated a significantly higher signal-to-noise ratio (p = 0.03) and bone sharpness (p < 0.001) compared to CBCT. In visual grading, PCD-CT outperformed CBCT, but not EID-CT, particularly in delineating mandibular and orbital structures. EID-CT and PCD-CT showed slightly more severe hypodense artifacts (p = 0.01) but were comparable in streak artifact presentation. The interrater and intrarater agreements indicated consistent evaluations across and within observers. ConclusionPCD-CT exhibits superior image quality over CBCT in key parameters essential for maxillofacial imaging, while no apparent improvement was shown compared to state-of-the-art EID-CT. PCD-CT offers enhanced visualization of critical anatomical structures, suggesting its potential as a preferred modality in managing maxillofacial trauma. The findings in this study align with limited existing research on PCD-CT, underscoring its promise for advanced diagnostic imaging in maxillofacial applications.