Specific Phobia Research Articles

Animals evoking fear in the Cradle of Humankind: snakes, scorpions, and large carnivores

Theories explain the presence of fears and specific phobias elicited by animals in contemporary WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) populations by their evolutionary past in Africa. Nevertheless, empirical data about fears of animals in the Cradle of Humankind are still fragmentary. To fill this gap, we examined which local animals are perceived as the most frightening by Somali people, who inhabit a markedly similar environment and the region where humans have evolved. We asked 236 raters to rank 42 stimuli according to their elicited fear. The stimuli were standardized pictures of species representing the local fauna. The results showed that the most frightening animals were snakes, scorpions, the centipede, and large carnivores (cheetahs and hyenas). These were followed up by lizards and spiders. Unlike in Europe, spiders represent less salient stimuli than scorpions for Somali respondents in this study. This conforms to the hypothesis suggesting that fear of spiders was extended or redirected from other chelicerates.

Anticipated fear and anxiety of Automated Driving Systems: Estimating the prevalence in a national representative survey.

Automated Driving Systems (ADS) may reshape mobility. Yet, related fear and anxiety are largely unknown. We estimated the prevalence and risk factors of anticipated anxiety towards ADS. In a nationally representative face-to-face household survey, we assessed anticipated levels of anxiety towards ADS based on DSM-5 specific phobia criteria, using structured diagnostic interviews. We estimated weighted prevalences and conducted adjusted logistic regression models. Of N=2076 respondents, 40.82% (95%-confidence interval (CI) 37.73-43.98) anticipated experiencing some symptoms of phobia of ADS, 15.22% (CI 13.19-17.51) anticipated subthreshold phobia, and 3.39% (CI 2.42-4.75) anticipated full-blown phobia of ADS. Of subjects anticipating subthreshold phobia, 74.02% showed no strong, enduring fears of driving non-automated cars and 65.07% presented no other specific phobias (full-blown anticipated phobia: 50.37% and 50.03%, respectively). Anticipated phobia highly overlapped with anticipating marked or strong fears of passively encountering ADS in traffic (odds ratio 312.4-1982.2). About 20% of subjects anticipated at least subthreshold and 4% of subjects anticipated full-blown phobia of ADS. It appears to be distinct from fears related to non-automated driving and other specific phobias. Our findings call for prevention and treatment of phobia of ADS as they become increasingly ubiquitous.

Extensive characterization of a Williams syndrome murine model shows Gtf2ird1-mediated rescue of select sensorimotor tasks, but no effect on enhanced social behavior.

Williams syndrome is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder exhibiting cognitive and behavioral abnormalities, including increased social motivation, risk of anxiety and specific phobias along with perturbed motor function. Williams syndrome is caused by a microdeletion of 26-28 genes on chromosome 7, including GTF2IRD1, which encodes a transcription factor suggested to play a role in the behavioral profile of Williams syndrome. Duplications of the full region also lead to frequent autism diagnosis, social phobias and language delay. Thus, genes in the region appear to regulate social motivation in a dose-sensitive manner. A "complete deletion" mouse, heterozygously eliminating the syntenic Williams syndrome region, has been deeply characterized for cardiac phenotypes, but direct measures of social motivation have not been assessed. Furthermore, the role of Gtf2ird1 in these behaviors has not been addressed in a relevant genetic context. Here, we have generated a mouse overexpressing Gtf2ird1, which can be used both to model duplication of this gene alone and to rescue Gtf2ird1 expression in the complete deletion mice. Using a comprehensive behavioral pipeline and direct measures of social motivation, we provide evidence that the Williams syndrome critical region regulates social motivation along with motor and anxiety phenotypes, but that Gtf2ird1 complementation is not sufficient to rescue most of these traits, and duplication does not decrease social motivation. However, Gtf2ird1 complementation does rescue light-aversive behavior and performance on select sensorimotor tasks, perhaps indicating a role for this gene in sensory processing or integration.

Anxiety in autistic preschool children: Phenomenology and a network analysis of correlates.

Anxiety disorders in autistic children are associated with significant functional impairment. Few studies have examined impairing anxiety presentations in autistic preschool children (i.e., 3-5 years old). This cross-sectional study examined the phenomenology of impairing anxiety and the strongest correlates of anxiety in 75 autistic preschool children. Parents completed a diagnostic interview that assesses two anxiety types, DSM-5 anxiety disorders and impairing distinct anxiety presentations, and measures of anxiety correlates. An exploratory network analysis examined connections between anxiety and its correlates. Forty percent of children had impairing anxiety. Specific phobia followed by 'other social fear,' a type of distinct anxiety, were the most common anxiety types. Child intolerance of uncertainty (IU) was the only correlate that was associated with anxiety in a network analysis framework. Child IU linked anxiety to two other correlates, sensory over-responsivity and somatic symptoms. Findings emphasize the need for early intervention for anxiety and further research on its correlates.

Validation of a Specific Phobia Questionnaire by University Students in Malaysia

Specific phobia is a subcategory of anxiety disorders that remains poor understanding due to inadequate screening tools. This study aimed to develop and validate a new Specific Phobia Questionnaire (SPQ). This SPQ was developed based on literature reviews and inputs from related experts for content validity. The SPQ questionnaire consisted of 14 items and after content validity and face validity testing procedure, 12 items were chosen for the final questionnaire. The questionnaire was then distributed via Google form to university students in Klang Valley. A total of 267 students participated in this study with 70.8% were female with mean age of 23.28 (Standard deviation of 4.98) years. Validity analysis using exploratory factor analysis from the final study indicated that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value was 0.77 and extracted three domains; animals, blood injection injury and situational-environment. Reliability analysis showed that Cronbach’s α values were 0.84, 0.86, 0.78 and 0.72 for the total items, animal, blood injection injury and situational-environment domains, respectively. The newly developed SPQ showed good reliability and validity for evaluating specific phobia.

Özgül Fobilerin Bilişsel Davranışçı Terapilerinde Sanal Gerçeklik Uygulamaları

Virtual reality (VR) applications have been increasingly used in the clinical field. Its applications in psychotherapies is becoming widespread with researches. The use of VR in psychotherapy, specifically as an exposure therapy approach, is prominently used in the treatment of specific phobias, which is one of the most common clinical presentations. There is a substantial body of literature investigating the effectiveness of VR applications in the treatment of specific phobias. The purpose of this review is to introduce the virtual environment scenarios used in virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) applications for various specific phobias. Keywords: specific phobias, cognitive behavioral therapy, virtual reality applications

Scoping review of the hardware and software features of virtual reality exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and specific phobia

Introduction: The use of virtual reality technology to deliver exposure therapy in the treatment of phobic anxiety (i.e., social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and specific phobia) has been proposed to be advantageous compared with in-vivo exposure therapy. These supposed advantages depend on the features of the virtual reality technology and how it is used therapeutically. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive overview of the features of the hardware and software used in studies examining virtual reality exposure therapy studies for phobic anxiety disorders.Methods: 70 studies using virtual reality exposure therapy to treat social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia and/or specific phobia, were systematically reviewed for 46 data points relating to these features.Results: We found that studies generally did not utilize contemporary virtual reality technology and that hardware and software features were inconsistently delineated.Discussion: The implications of these findings are that the use of modern virtual reality technology represents a relevant frontier in anxiety treatment and that a framework for reporting technical features of virtual reality exposure interventions would benefit the field.

Specific Phobia Disorder and Its Implications

The primary purpose of this paper is aimed to learn about past and recent research on specific phobias. The overview will include discussions about its symptoms, etiology, social and cultural factors, and treatments. The overview of the etiology will cover and analyze the three models contributing to the specific disorder's causes. The overview will cover the gender differences, comorbidities, and related negative social impacts of cultural and social factors. The overview of the treatment will cover the development, evaluation, and comparisons of the current treatments. Based on the arguments and analysis in the debate, I will recommend and point out future Research Directions. In the results and discussion section, I'll introduce the possible causes of the specific phobia by providing associated models and theories, the social and individual impacts, the standard treatments, and their efficacies, interactions, and drawbacks. Then, I will generally conclude the findings and give recommendations about future research directions.

Reappraisal is less effective than distraction in downregulation of neural responses to physical threats-An event-related potential investigation.

Evolutionary threats (ETs), such as predatory animals and heights, elicit stronger fear responses and are more often the subject of specific phobias, as compared to modern threats (MTs, such as guns and motorcycles). Since processing of ET depends on lower-order, phylogenetically conserved neural fear circuits, it may be less susceptible to higher-order (vs. simpler) cognitive emotion regulation. Given the relevance for treatment of specific phobias, we tested this hypothesis in an ERP study. Sixty-one female participants passively watched high- and low-threat pictures of evolutionary (snakes, lizards) and modern (guns, water-guns) origin, and downregulated responses to the high-threat pictures (snakes and guns) using either cognitive reappraisal or a simpler cognitive distraction strategy. ET elicited stronger early (EPN) and sustained (LPP) attention processing compared to MT. Both strategies successfully downregulated subjective and LPP (but not EPN) responses compared to passive watching. Although reappraisal was more effective subjectively, distraction downregulated the LPP earlier and stronger than reappraisal, irrespective of the threat type. These findings provide novel evidence that neural responses to physical threat might be less susceptible to cognitive emotion regulation via higher-order (reappraisal) versus simpler (distraction) strategies, irrespective of the evolutionary or modern relevance of threat. Combining both strategies could be beneficial for the emotion regulation-enhancing interventions for specific phobias. Distraction could be used during initial exposure, to reduce immediate emotion responding and help endure the contact with the feared stimulus, whereas reappraisal could be used subsequently, when emotions are less intense, to change maladaptive thoughts about the stimulus for future encounters.

Özgül Fobi ve Sınav Kaygısı Olan Ergenlerde EMDR Terapinin Etkisinin İncelenmesi

This research is about the investigation of the Effect of EMDR Therapy on Adolescents between 15-17 years of age with Specific Phobia and Test Anxiety. The first hypothesis of the study is that “Adolescents who are treated with EMDR therapy will significantly decrease their fear scores of the phobia object (delusion, affective and total).” The second hypothesis is that "Sub-score and total test anxiety scores of adolescents who receive EMDR therapy will decrease significantly." The data on this research, collected by using Demographic Information Form, Test anxiety Inventory, DSM-5 Specific Phobia Scale for 11-17 Year-Old Children; through 31 adolescents living in Antalya (Turkey) and visiting the counselling centre for treatment between February 2022 and July 2022. Data were obtained and analysed in SPSS 25.0 package program. In the study, test anxiety sub-scale and total scores of adolescents who is receiving EMDR therapy with test anxiety, also total specific phobia scores of adolescents with specific phobia were compared as pre-test and post-test. As a result of the 5-session EMDR therapy, it was concluded that test anxiety sub-scale scores and total scores as well as specific phobia total scores decreased significantly in post-test measurement. Based on the research findings, it was considered that EMDR therapy gives positive results on adolescents with specific phobia and test anxiety.

Improving the efficacy of exposure therapy using projection-based augmented reality for the treatment of cockroach phobia: a randomised clinical trial protocol

IntroductionIn vivo exposure is the treatment of choice for specific phobia (SP), but this technique presents limitations related to access and acceptability. Augmented reality (AR) offers advantages like maximising strategies...

Distraction versus focusing during VR exposure therapy for acrophobia: A randomized controlled trial

Background and ObjectivesThe therapeutic mechanisms of exposure therapy are not well understood. Research suggests that focusing on the most feared aspect might not be necessary, and that distraction with a low cognitive load (e.g., conversation) might enhance exposure. We aimed at systematically testing the efficacy of exposure therapy with focusing vs. conversational distraction, hypothesizing that distracted exposure would yield superior effects. MethodsThirty-eight patients with acrophobia (specific phobia of heights; clinician-determined) (free from relevant somatic or other mental disorders) were randomly assigned (1:1) to one virtual reality (VR) session of either focused (n = 20) or distracted exposure (n = 18). This monocentric trial took place at a psychiatric university hospital. ResultsBoth conditions resulted in a significant reduction of acrophobic fear and avoidance, and a significant increase of self-efficacy (primary outcome variables). However, condition did not have a significant effect on any of these variables. Effects were stable at four-week follow-up. Heart rate and skin conductance level indicated significant arousal, but did not differ between conditions. LimitationsEye-tracking was unavailable, nor did we assess emotions other than fear. Power was limited due to sample size. ConclusionsA balanced exposure protocol combining attention to fear cues with conversational distraction, while not being superior, might be as effective as focused exposure for acrophobia, at least during the initial stages of exposure therapy. These results support previous findings. This study demonstrates how VR can be exploited for therapy process research, as VR supports dismantling designs and the incorporation of online process measures.

Treating specific phobia in youth: A randomized controlled microtrial comparing gradual exposure in large steps to exposure in small steps

IntroductionExposure may be especially effective when within exercises, there is a strong violation of threat expectancies and much opportunity for fear reduction. Outcomes of exposure may therefore improve when exposure is conducted in large steps (LargeSE) relative to small steps (SmallSE). MethodsChildren and young people with a specific phobia (SP) (N = 50, age 8–17, 64 % girls) participated in a preregistered single-blind, randomized controlled microtrial comparing LargeSE and SmallSE in a four-week baseline-treatment design. Clinical interviews, behavioral avoidance tests, and self-report measures were assessed at pre-treatment, post-treatment, and at one-month follow-up. ResultsWithin exercises, LargeSE resulted in higher initial fear levels and more within-session expectancy violation. Nevertheless, SmallSE resulted in a larger decline of SP severity from baseline to post-treatment and follow-up, and a larger decline of anxiety and avoidance towards one’s individual goal from baseline to follow-up. There were no differences between LargeSE and SmallSE regarding changes in general self-efficacy or behavioral avoidance. Although session duration was standardized and similar for both conditions, participants in SmallSE received more (shorter) exercises. DiscussionSmallSE might be more effective in reducing SP severity because children in SmallSE were exposed to a larger number and variety of exercises than children in LargeSE.

Social skills and symptoms of anxiety disorders from preschool to adolescence: a prospective cohort study.

Prior research, mostly cross-sectional or prospective studies with short follow-up periods, has indicated that childhood anxiety is associated with difficulties with social interaction. However, the etiological role of social skills in the development of anxiety in childhood remains unknown. Moreover, it is not known whether childhood anxiety impedes the development of age-appropriate social skills. The relation between anxiety and social skills was, therefore, examined in two birth cohorts of children who were assessed biennially from the ages of 4 to 14 years (n= 1,043). Semistructured psychiatric diagnostic interviews of children (from age 8) and parents were used to measure symptoms of separation, generalized, and social anxiety disorders as well as specific phobias. Social skills were measured through the parent-reported Social Skills Rating System. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to analyze the data, adjusting for observed time-variant covariates (emotion regulation, secure attachment, bullying victimization, and global self-esteem) and all unobserved time-invariant confounding effects. Reduced social skills predicted increased symptoms of anxiety at ages 8, 10, and 12 (β= -.26, β= -.17, and β= -.15, respectively), whereas an increased number of anxiety symptoms did not forecast changes in social skills. The findings suggest that reduced social skills may be involved in the development of anxiety symptoms in middle childhood and should, therefore, be considered in efforts to prevent and treat childhood anxiety.

The role of self-efficacy in specific fears.

Low self-efficacy for threatening stimuli and situations has been proposed as an important etiological factor in the development and maintenance of specific phobias. The present study examined the relationships between general self-efficacy (GSE), specific self-efficacy (SSE) and specific fears in a representative sample (n = 717). While GSE was associated with higher self-reported fear and avoidance, SSE (e.g. SSE in the presence of animal-related fear) was more related to specific fears. SSE turned out to be a significant predictor of specific fear even after controlling for trait anxiety, age and gender. Interestingly, the association between SSE and specific fear differed across the different fear categories. Fear and avoidance of blood/injection/injuries showed the highest associations with SSE. In contrast, the association between natural environment-related fear and avoidance and GSE or SSE together was only modest. Exploratory analyses revealed a gender-specific effect on the strength of the association between SSE and specific fears. Women scored higher in animal-related fears and SSE. Our findings support the self-efficacy hypothesis of anxiety disorder development and provide a more detailed insight into the role of GSE and SSE in specific fears and phobias.

A novel probe of attentional bias for threat in specific phobia: Application of the “MouseView.js” approach

Although attentional bias for threat has been implicated in anxiety disorders, traditional attentional bias measures have been criticized for lack of reliability and validity, and eye tracking technologies can be cost-prohibitive. MouseView.js was recently developed to mimic eye tracking online by using the computer cursor as a proxy for gaze, and although it is equally reliable, MouseView.js’ utility for capturing attentional bias for threat in anxiety-related disorders remains unclear. To fill this knowledge gap, snake phobic and non-phobic participants (N = 62) completed a behavioral avoidance task (BAT) and the MouseView.js task which consisted of 10-second exposures to blurred, side-by-side images of either pleasant-neutral or threat-neutral pairings and were instructed to freely move the mouse to reveal the images. Results demonstrated that snake phobic participants had significantly shorter average mouse dwell time on threat images than non-phobic individuals and showed a significant reduction in average dwell time on threat images following the first presentation of the threat-neutral pairing. Additionally, dwell time on threat images significantly mediated the group differences in steps completed on the BAT. Results highlight the utility of MouseView.js in capturing avoidant patterns of attentional bias for threat that may also partially drive avoidance in snake phobia. Implications for capturing attentional bias for threat in anxiety disorders more broadly are discussed.

Behavioral profiling in children and adolescents with Malan syndrome

Malan syndrome (MALNS) is an ultra-rare genetic disorder caused by heterozygous chromosomal microdeletions involving the 19p13.2 region or loss-of-function variants in the NFIX gene. It is characterized by specific phenotypical features, intellectual disability (ID), and limitations in adaptive functioning and behavioral problems. In a previous work, we defined the cognitive, adaptive, linguistic and visuomotor ability profiles in a group of 15 MALNS individuals, providing quantitative data from standardized evaluations. Here, we further extend the characterization of MALNS by analyzing the behavioral and psychopathological comorbidities of the same cohort, administering standardized tests. Children were evaluated from October 2020 to January 2022. Retrospective data analysis was also performed. Assessment consisted of clinical observations, structured parent interviews, and parent-reported questionnaires. For each scale, comparisons between subtests were performed. Results of our analysis show that the most prevalent psychiatric comorbidities are represented by anxiety symptoms (including GAD, separation anxiety and specific phobias), ADHD, autistic symptoms, and social and attention problems. Of note, minimal or no signs of ASD were observed. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the psychopathological and behavioral comorbidities, together with cognitive impairment, language problems and sensory difficulties interfere with development, daily activities and social participation, therefore contributing to the severity of the disability associated with MALNS. Awareness of this profile by professionals and caregivers can promote prompt diagnosis and support cognitive and behavioral development.

Alcohol use disorder criteria exhibit different comorbidity patterns.

Alcohol use disorder is comorbid with numerous other forms of psychopathology, including externalizing disorders (e.g. conduct disorder) and, to a lesser extent, internalizing conditions (e.g. depression, anxiety). Much of the time, overlap among alcohol use disorder and other conditions is explored at the disorder level, assuming that criteria are co-equal indicators of other psychopathology, even though alcohol use disorder criteria span numerous varied domains. Emerging evidence suggests that there are symptom clusters within the construct of alcohol use disorder that relate differentially with important external criteria, including psychopathology and allied personality traits (e.g. impulsivity, novelty-seeking). The present study mapped individual alcohol use disorder criteria onto internalizing and externalizing dimensions. We used multivariate and factor analytical modeling and data from two large nationally representative samples of past year drinkers (n = 25 604; 19 454). United States. Psychopathology was assessed using the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule, yielding alcohol use disorder criteria, internalizing diagnoses (i.e. major depressive disorder, dysthymia, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, agoraphobia and panic disorder) and externalizing diagnoses and symptoms (i.e. antisocial personality disorder, conduct disorder and three impulsivity items drawn from borderline personality disorder criteria). Alcohol consumption was assessed in terms of past-year drinking frequency, usual amount of alcohol consumed on drinking days, binge drinking frequency, intoxication frequency, and maximum number of drinks in a 24-hour period. Four different patterns emerged. First, several alcohol use disorder criteria were relatively weakly associated with externalizing and internalizing. Secondly, withdrawal was associated with internalizing, but this association was not specific to distress. Thirdly, there was a general lack of specificity between alcohol use disorder criteria and narrower forms of internalizing, despite what might be predicted by modern models of addiction. Fourthly, recurrent use in hazardous situations reflected higher degrees of externalizing and lower internalizing liability. Different symptom combinations appear to yield differential expressions of alcohol use disorder that are disorder-specific, or reflect broader tendencies toward externalizing, internalizing or both.

A comparative analysis of arachnophobia and claustrophobia

Nowadays, mental health and the psychological state starts to draw attention from people as the significance of treating them is the same as solving physical diseases. However, unlike depression, phobia – as a type of common anxiety, is often neglected in the wider society. This review aims to highlight the importance of looking at specific phobias in the right way and the necessity of accepting professional advices. It is conducted by collecting and analysing online references and data, comparing two specific phobias: arachnophobia and claustrophobia in three main aspects (causes, symptoms, and treatment). The analysis states the variety of causes of these two specific phobias and how the symptoms affect life severely on a daily basis. Overall, specific phobia is a serious issue that can’t be overlooked or underestimated. Professional advice and treatment are necessary and probably the only way to get rid of the specific phobia.

Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Offspring’s of Consanguineous Marriages

The Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder that can be characterized by repetitive behaviors, language delay, varying cmmunication limitations (Lobe,2006). Individuals on the spectrum are also more likely to be accompanied with ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), found most frequently (Caron and Rutter 1991); depression (Angold et al. 1999), specific phobias(Love et al.1990), obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD; Charlop-Christy and Haymes 1996), and anxiety (Woodward et al. 2005). Although there are no medical tests available, a diagnostic tool, DSM-V can be used to assess and form a reliable diagnosis by 2 years of age. The fact that this disorder is heterogeneous reflects the drastic differences between individuals with autism only, making diagnostic procedures more difficult. The disorder is more prevalent in boys than girls. Etiology is not definitely known, but research has indicated possible involvement of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors (Faras et al, 2010). Genetic investigation includes twin, family studies through cytogenetic analysis association and linkage analysis studies, copy number variation (CNV), DNA microarray analysis, as well as whole-exome sequencing analysis and transcriptomic analysis (Li et al, 2012). Environmental factors such as parental age, medication use during pregnancy, maternal smoking and alcohol consumption and vaccination have also been explored. With several indications of genetic contribution to etiology of autism spectrum disorder, the research aims to explore prevalence of ASD in offspring of consanguineous marriages. Consanguinity is commonly practicedin several cultures across South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. These also include communities of these cultures who have migrated to other countries and continue to exercise this as per custom.