Dietary Shifts Research Articles

Food matters: Dietary shifts increase the feasibility of 1.5°C pathways in line with the Paris Agreement.

A transition to healthy diets such as the EAT-Lancet Planetary Health Diet could considerably reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, the specific contributions of dietary shifts for the feasibility of 1.5°C pathways remain unclear. Here, we use the open-source integrated assessment modeling (IAM) framework REMIND-MAgPIE to compare 1.5°C pathways with and without dietary shifts. We find that a flexitarian diet increases the feasibility of the Paris Agreement climate goals in different ways: The reduction of GHG emissions related to dietary shifts, especially methane from ruminant enteric fermentation, increases the 1.5°C compatible carbon budget. Therefore, dietary shifts allow to achieve the same climate outcome with less carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and less stringent CO2 emission reductions in the energy system, which reduces pressure on GHG prices, energy prices, and food expenditures.

Dietary shift can enhance the environmental benefits of crop redistribution

Crop redistribution is widely recognized as an effective means of reducing the environmental costs of agricultural production without technological improvements. However, changes in food supply driven by dietary shift are rarely taken into account in crop redistribution. Based on inventory analysis of water consumption, land demand and carbon emission in crops production, this study constructed a linear optimization model to explore crop redistribution strategy and the saving potential of environmental costs in context of dietary shift. The results showed that crops production in 2030 would increase water consumption by 2.84%, land demand by 1.19%, and carbon emission by 1.31% compared with 2020 if the diet remained unchanged. Crop redistribution considering dietary shift provided an effective approach to achieve significant environmental benefits, including reductions in water consumption of 3.33%–14.91%, arable land use of 1.13%–13.90%, and carbon emission of 6.17%–20.26% compared to the baseline scenario, among which, dietary shift contributed 2.64 ± 6.12%, 0.75 ± 7.06%, and 1.32 ± 7.19%, respectively. The findings highlighted that appropriate dietary shift could enhance the environmental benefits of crop redistribution. Insights into the dietary shift and concomitant environmental benefits debate on crop redistribution have important policy implications for improving the sustainability of agricultural production.

Spatial and ontogenetic modulation of fatty acid composition in juvenile European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) from two French estuaries

This study evaluated how estuary of origin and ontogenetic stage influence the fatty acid (FA) composition in the tissues of wild European sea bass juvenile. We evidenced tissue-specific patterns, with the brain exhibiting a distinct FA composition from the liver and muscle. Ontogenetic stage and estuary influenced the general FA profile, and particularly the essential FA (EFA) like docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and arachidonic acid (ARA) in all tissues. The data also revealed the ability of wild sea bass to modulate, at the molecular level, FA biosynthesis pathways and suggest a potential dietary DHA limitation in the natural environment. The distribution of FA within tissues might reflect shifts in diet, metabolic demands, or adaptations to environmental conditions. This study provides insights about FA dynamics in euryhaline fish during juvenile life stage, improving our understanding of the metabolism need and EFA trophic availability in a changing environment.

Linking diet switching to reproductive performance across populations of two critically endangered mammalian herbivores

Optimal foraging theory predicts that animals maximise energy intake by consuming the most valuable foods available. When resources are limited, they may include lower-quality fallback foods in their diets. As seasonal herbivore diet switching is understudied, we evaluate its extent and effects across three Kenyan reserves each for Critically Endangered eastern black rhino (Diceros bicornis michaeli) and Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), and its associations with habitat quality, microbiome variation, and reproductive performance. Black rhino diet breadth increases with vegetation productivity (NDVI), whereas zebra diet breadth peaks at intermediate NDVI. Black rhino diets associated with higher vegetation productivity have less acacia (Fabaceae: Vachellia and Senegalia spp.) and more grass suggesting that acacia are fallback foods, upending conventional assumptions. Larger dietary shifts are associated with longer calving intervals. Grevy’s zebra diets in high rainfall areas are consistently grass-dominated, whereas in arid areas they primarily consume legumes during low vegetation productivity periods. Whilst microbiome composition between individuals is affected by the environment, and diet composition in black rhino, seasonal dietary shifts do not drive commensurate microbiome shifts. Documenting diet shifts across ecological gradients can increase the effectiveness of conservation by informing habitat suitability models and improving understanding of responses to resource limitation.

Employing biomolecular analyses and radiocarbon AMS chronologies to disentangle complex mortuary assemblages: Reinterpreting the Kane mortuary complex enigma in greater Cahokia

The acknowledged importance of documenting legacy assemblages led to efforts in the mid-1990s to re-examine such collections from Illinois. In some cases this involved applying traditional methods and emerging techniques to address complex questions of context, chronology, and aspects of identity for American Indian ancestral sites and individuals. These efforts included the Kane Mounds mortuary complex salvaged in the early 1960s and long interpreted as a late Mississippian mortuary area related to Cahokia. Drawing on available data from original field and analysis records, past biomolecular analysis, and combined with an evolving understanding of the people and culture history of the American Bottom, we use results from isotopic analyses and radiocarbon AMS chronologies obtained prior to 2018 to disentangle complex multicomponent mortuary settings. These studies revealed the mortuary importance of Kane spanned 1500 years, from as early as 500 BCE into the 14th century CE, a period that saw a major shift in diet with the increased consumption of maize and a population comprised of individuals local to the American Bottom and as well as immigrants. Available biomolecular information and radiocarbon AMS chronologies demonstrate both temporal and geographic diversity within the Kane mortuary complex, as well as continuity in the importance of this mortuary location.

Benchmarking Policy Goals and Actions for Healthy Food Environments in Benin to Prevent Malnutrition

Background and aim: Lifestyle and dietary shifts contribute to widespread or specific micronutrient deficiencies, leading to health issues such as obesity, hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers. These problems are linked to unhealthy food environments, yet little is known about Benin policy responses. This study aims to assess how different aspects of the food environment are addressed in Benin's policy documents and their alignment with international best practices. Methods: The study analyzed intentions and actions to ensure a healthy food environment in Benin using various policy documents, including laws, decrees, sectoral policies, strategic and operational plans, regulations, directives, action plans, and program/project documents. It followed the Food-EPI tool (Healthy Food Environment Policy Index) of the INFORMAS network (International Network for Food and Obesity/NCDs, Research, Monitoring and Action Support) focusing on the “Policy and Infrastructure Support” components, with steps like contextual analysis, document collection, and evidence extraction. Results: Of the 98 documents collected, 61 were analyzed and classified into frameworks: 54.09% in the policy framework, 29.50% in the strategic framework, and 16.39% in the operational framework. While nine food environment domains were addressed to some extent, disparities with international best practices were noted, especially in food composition, labeling, pricing, governance, and funding/resources. Evidence gaps were identified in retail food sales, food trade and investments, and health integration in policies. Conclusions: The study reveals diverse approaches and gaps in Benin policies for healthy food environments. Despite progress in some areas, like leadership and monitoring, others, including food composition and governance, need more attention.

Sustainable Blue Foods from Rice-Animal Coculture Systems.

Global interest grows in blue foods as part of sustainable diets, but little is known about the potential and environmental performance of blue foods from rice-animal coculture systems. Here, we compiled a large experimental database and conducted a comprehensive life cycle assessment to estimate the impacts of scaling up rice-fish and rice-crayfish systems in China. We find that a large amount of protein can be produced from the coculture systems, equivalent to ∼20% of freshwater aquaculture and ∼70% of marine wild capture projected in 2030. Because of the ecological benefits created by the symbiotic relationships, cocultured fish and crayfish are estimated to be carbon-negative (-9.8 and -4.7 kg of CO2e per 100 g of protein, respectively). When promoted at scale to displace red meat, they can save up to ∼98 million tons of greenhouse gases and up to ∼13 million hectares of farmland, equivalent to ∼44% of China's total rice acreage. These results suggest that rice-animal coculture systems can be an important source of blue foods and contribute to a sustainable dietary shift, while reducing the environmental footprints of rice production. To harvest these benefits, robust policy supports are required to guide the sustainable development of coculture systems and promote healthy and sustainable dietary change.

Contribution of infectious diseases to the selection of ADH1B and ALDH2 gene variants in Asian populations.

The gene variants ADH1B*2 (Arg48His, rs1229984) and ALDH2*2 (Glu504Lys, rs671) are common in East Asian populations but rare in other populations. We propose that selective pressures from pathogen exposure and dietary changes during the neolithic transition favored these variants. Thus, their current association with differences in alcohol sensitivity likely results from phenotypic plasticity rather than direct natural selection. Samples sourced from the Allele Frequency Database (ALFRED) were utilized to compute the average frequency of ADH1B*2 and ALDH2*2 across 88 and 61 countries, respectively. Following computation of the average national allele frequencies, we tested the significance of their correlations with ecological variables. Subsequently, we subjected them to Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Elastic Net regularization. For comprehensive evaluation, we collected individual-level phenotypic associations, compiling a Phenome-Wide Association Study (PheWAS) spanning multiple ethnicities. Following multiple testing correction, ADH1B*2 displayed significant correlations with Neolithic transition timing (r = 0.405, p.adj = 2.013e-03, n = 57) and historical trypanosome burden (r = -0.418, p.adj = 0.013, n = 57). The first two components of PCA explained 47.7% of the total variability across countries, with the top three contributors being the historical indices of population density and trypanosome and leprosy burdens. Historical burdens of the Mycobacteria tuberculosis and leprosy were the sole predictive variables with positive coefficients that survived Elastic Net regularization. Our analyses suggest that Mycobacteria may have played a role in the joint selection of ADH1B*2 and ALDH2*2, expanding the "toxic aldehyde hypothesis" to include Mycobacterium leprae. Additionally, our hypothesis, linked to dietary shifts from rice domestication, emphasizes nutritional deficiencies as a key element in the selective pressure exerted by Mycobacteria. This offers a plausible explanation for the high frequency of ADH1B*2 and ALDH2*2 in Asian populations.

Variable forage fish biomass and phenology influence marine predator diet, foraging behavior, and species interactions in coastal Newfoundland, Canada

Abstract Forage fish species provide essential linkages for energy transfer within pelagic marine food webs. Capelin (Mallotus villosus), the focal forage fish in coastal Newfoundland, Canada, suffered a stock collapse in 1991 and has not recovered. Despite this collapse, capelin continue to provide locally abundant prey aggregations. Here, I synthesize the lessons learned from a long-term capelin-predator research program (2004–2022) on the northeast Newfoundland coast during the postcollapse period. I highlight the importance of simultaneously estimating forage fish biomass and predator responses in a multispecies and multiyear context. High interannual variation in capelin spawning timing and biomass was observed. Lower capelin biomass consistently resulted in predator species- and assemblage-level dietary shifts toward a higher diversity of lower trophic level, alternative prey. Energetic foraging costs of seabirds also increased under lower capelin biomass, but responses differed among species. Summer capelin consumption by dominant seabirds (9389 tonnes) and whales (778 tonnes) indicated predator energetic requirements and revealed higher natural mortality relative to fishery-based (1289 tonnes) mortality. Overall, this case study illustrated that, despite high observed behavioural plasticity, varying species-specific predator responses to changing capelin biomass integrated to increase potential competitive interactions under low capelin biomass, providing a basis for ecosystem-level change.

Corrigendum: From future diets to dishes: communicating dietary shift associated with a 1.5°C scenario for Brazil, China, Sweden and the United Kingdom

Corrigendum: From future diets to dishes: communicating dietary shift associated with a 1.5°C scenario for Brazil, China, Sweden and the United Kingdom

A Comprehensive Review on the Effect of an Ayurvedic Protocol in Metabolic Syndrome

The clustering of obesity, dyslipidaemia, impaired glucose tolerance, and hypertension, known as 'Metabolic Syndrome (MS),' has emerged as a significant global public health and clinical concern, attributed to urbanization, sedentary lifestyles, and dietary shifts. Metabolic Syndrome aligns well with the Ayurvedic concept of Medodhatuvriddhi, Medovahasrothodushti, Santharpanajanya vikaras (Sthoulya, Medoroga, Prameha, Hrdroga) and Ama pradoshaja vikaras. It is primarily caused by the vitiation of Kapha, Meda, Ama and hence drugs having Kaphavatahara, Medohara Chikitsa should be mainly adopted. Additionally, there is a common misconception among the public that ghee consumption leads to hyperlipidaemia. Taking these factors into account, a protocol has been formulated to assess the effectiveness of Huthabhugadi churna and Trayushnadi ghrtam in the management of MS. Most of the drugs in the formulations are having Kapha vatahara and Medohara properties which might help in eliminating excess Medodhathu and promote optimal Rasadi dhathus. Huthabhugadi Churna might play a pivotal role in addressing Jatharagnimandya whereas Trayushnadi Ghrtam might correct the imbalance in Dhatvagnimandya reducing the Atipravritti of Medodhathu. Consequently, this protocol might effectively help in reducing Kapha, meda and ama ultimately alleviating the symptoms associated with MS.

Dietary Shifts in the Adaptation to Changing Marine Resources: Insights from a Decadal Study on Greater Lizardfish (Saurida tumbil) in the Beibu Gulf, South China Sea.

Understanding dietary behavior during the individual development of marine predators and its temporal variations elucidates how species adapt to changes in marine resources. This is crucial for predicting marine predators' habitat selection and the natural population's responses to environmental changes. The authors conducted a comparative analysis of dietary shift strategies and trophic level variations in Greater lizardfish (Saurida tumbil) in the Beibu Gulf during two distinct periods (2010 and 2020) using stomach content and stable isotope analysis methods. Possible driving factors for these changes were also explored. Changes in the fishery community structure and the decline in the abundance of primary prey resources have led the S. tumbil population to diversify their prey species, utilize alternative resources, and expand their foraging space. However, the species' foraging strategy, characterized by chasing and preying on schooling and pelagic prey, promoted stability in their feeding behavior across spatial and temporal scales. The main prey items remained demersal and pelagic fish species, followed by cephalopods and crustaceans. Similar to other generalist fish species, ontogenetic dietary shifts (ODSs) indicated a partial transition towards larger prey items. However, the timing and magnitude of the ODSs varied between the two periods, reflecting life-history variations and adaptive adjustments to environmental changes. In comparison to 2010, the population's mean body length (BL) increased in 2020, and the proportion of the population feeding on pelagic-neritic prey significantly increased. However, the δ15N values were lower, indicating that the shift in the ecological niche of preferred prey from demersal to pelagic-neritic was the primary cause of the decrease in trophic levels. In the future, we will conduct further quantitative research integrating the spatiotemporal data of both predators and prey to clarify the relationships between marine predators' feeding behavior, trophic levels, and changes in prey community structure.

Variation in stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope compositions along antlers of Qamanirjuaq caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus).

Annual antler growth begins in the spring and is completed by late summer for male caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) from the Qamanirjuaq herd (Nunavut, Canada), aligned with both the spring migration and a seasonal dietary shift. Antlers may provide a non-lethal means of studying short- and long-term changes in caribou ecology through incorporated isotopes of carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N). We sampled the antlers of 12 male caribou from the Qamanirjuaq herd culled in September 1967. We predicted that serial sampling of antlers would reflect the known seasonal dietary change from lichen to grass-like and shrub diet based on rumen contents from individuals culled during the same period. The δ13C and δ15N were analyzed in food sources and every 3 cm along each antler's length. The carbon isotope compositions of collagen (δ13Ccol) varied by ~0.5‰ among individuals and within antlers, while the carbon isotope compositions of antler bioapatite (δ13CCO3) increased by 1-1.5‰ from pedicle to tip. Values of δ15Ncol increased within antlers by 1-3‰ from pedicle to tip and varied by 3‰ among the individuals sampled. Antler collagen was lower in δ15Ncol by ~1‰ relative to bone collagen. Bayesian mixing models were conducted to test for changes in dietary proportions from antler isotope compositions. Mixing models did not indicate significant dietary shifts for any individual during antler formation, showing consistently mixed diets of fungi, horsetail, lichen, and woody plants. Increases in δ15Ncol in antler tissue could, therefore, correspond to subtle seasonal dietary changes and/or the physiological stress of antler tissue development.

Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Cardiovascular Health in Middle-Aged Chinese Populations

This paper examines the impact of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on cardiovascular health among the middle-aged Chinese population, amidst the country’s growing burden of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Given the escalating prevalence of CVDs influenced by lifestyle changes, aging, and dietary shifts, there’s a pressing need for efficient and accessible interventions. HIIT, with its brief, intense exercise bursts followed by rest periods, emerges as a potent modality to enhance cardiovascular fitness, manage weight, improve metabolic health, and address psychological stress factors, thereby reducing CVD risk factors. This analysis is grounded in research findings, health statistics, and pilot program outcomes, underscoring HIIT’s viability as a public health strategy. The paper delves into the physiological benefits of HIIT, including improvements in VO2 max, blood pressure regulation, lipid profile enhancement, and insulin sensitivity. It also considers the implementation challenges and strategies for HIIT in China, highlighting the role of technology, healthcare provider collaboration, and tailored community initiatives in promoting widespread HIIT adoption. The conclusions drawn emphasize HIIT’s significant potential in mitigating cardiovascular risk among middle-aged Chinese, advocating for its integration into national health promotion efforts.

Trophic niche partitioning of golden cuttlefish (Sepia esculenta) during ontogeny revealed by stable isotope analysis and DNA metabarcoding

Cephalopods are becoming more important in global fishery. Understanding the trophic ecology partitioning during their ontogeny is critical to the stock assessment and fishery management. The golden cuttlefish (Sepia esculenta), one of commercially important cephalopod species has been found at different life-history stages that co-inhibit in the coastal waters of Qingdao, China. In the present study, the trophic ecology of S. esculenta was assessed by using stable isotope analysis (SIA: based δ13C and δ15N from muscle and liver tissue) and DNA metabarcoding of the stomach contents through high-throughput sequencing (HTS). SIA uncovered the variation in isotope niche and trophic position of S. esculenta during ontogeny. DNA metabarcoding showed a higher resolution of prey identification than before. The combined analysis of SIA and DNA metabarcoding indicated that diet shifts occurred in the ontogeny of S. esculenta. Paralaval and juvenile prefer zooplankton, while sub-adult and adult prefer demersal fishes. The standard ellipse area (SEAc) indicated that low isotope niche overlaps among paralaval, juvenile and sub-adult of S. esculenta, which reflect the squid foraging strategy during ontogeny. The study confirmed that S. esculenta resources can be partitioned into different life stages, suggesting a survival strategy to maintain population dynamics.

The fluid dynamics of barnacle feeding.

Sessile barnacles feed by sweeping their basket-like cirral fan through the water, intercepting suspended prey. A primary component of the diet of adult barnacles is copepods that are sensitive to fluid disturbances and capable of escaping. How do barnacles manage to capture copepods despite the fluid disturbances they generate? We examined this question by describing the feeding current architecture of 1 cm sized Balanus crenatus using particle image velocimetry, and by studying the trajectories of captured copepods and the escapes of evading copepods. We found that barnacles produce a feeding current that arrives both from behind and the sides of the barnacle. The flow from the sides represents quiescent corridors of low fluid deformation and uninterrupted by the beating cirral fan. Potential prey arriving from behind are likely to encounter the cirral fan and, hence, capture here is highly unlikely. Accordingly, most captured copepods arrived through the quiet corridors, while most copepods arriving from behind managed to escape. Thus, it is the unique feeding flow architecture that allows feeding on evasive prey. We used the Landau-Squire jet as a simple model of the feeding current. For the Reynolds number of our experiments, the model reproduces the main features of the feeding current, including the lateral feeding corridors. Furthermore, the model suggests that smaller barnacle specimens, operating at lower Reynolds numbers, will produce a fore-aft symmetric feeding current without the lateral corridors. This suggests an ontogenetic diet shift from non-evasive prey to inclusion of evasive prey as the barnacle grows.

The foraging ecology of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in New Caledonia

Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) face many threats from anthropogenic activity and are listed as Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. They spend the majority of their lives in coastal foraging areas, and show strong fidelity to narrow foraging ranges. Understanding the foraging ecology of green turtles is therefore important for their management and conservation. Using stable isotopes analysis (n = 200) and identification of stomach contents (n = 21), this study investigated the foraging ecology of four distinct green turtle foraging aggregations (Goro, Isle of Pines, Ouen Island and Uo/Mato Islands) within the Grand Lagon Sud. This World Heritage Area located in New Caledonia supports regionally important nesting and foraging green turtle populations. The δ13C and δ15N values of skin samples ranged from − 19.3 to  − 7.3‰ and 2.8–15.9‰, respectively. Metrics of isotopic niche and regression analyses were used to assess the degree of omnivory, trophic diversity and potential ontogenetic diet shifts in the different aggregations of foraging green turtles in this location. Each of the four sites and four age-classes had distinct isotopic niches, with evidence of omnivory and ontogenetic shifts, particular in new recruits and juveniles, and at Goro and Uo/Mato Islands. This was generally supported by the stomach contents analyses of a small number of green turtles opportunistically sampled from traditional ceremonies. This study provides important information on the foraging ecology of green turtles in New Caledonia, supporting management outcomes in this region. This collaboration with the tribes of the Grand Lagon Sud is also the first step towards the integrated management of the resource.

Dietary shifts and the need for increased sustainability approaches in the global aquaculture seafood system

Recent shifts in the global dietary preferences have indicated the fast-growing choice for plant-based, or meat-reduced diets. Among the motivations for such choices, which are increasingly advocated by nations and environmental institutions, is the major concern with global environmental sustainability and impacts of food production systems. Incontestably, the animal food source industry is extremely diverse, and seafood production through the aquaculture value chain remains unfamiliar to key stakeholders possibly leading to an uncomprehensive view and often biased perception of the farming industry within the environmental context. Accordingly, I discuss the importance of seafood production systems, such as the fastest seafood production that is the aquaculture sector, to increase their focus on the sustainability arena with more substantial and effective improvements for sustainable production, and most importantly, concomitantly informing end consumers. I mention examples of types of sustainability efforts that can be implemented and highlight the urgency of actively informing customers about implemented practices.

Management of High Fiber Induced Diarrhoea in Kittens – A Case study

Kitten diarrhoea is one of the common clinical presentations and it is caused by multiple etiopathology. One of the poorly documented etiologies is high fiber-induced diarrhoea in kittens. The present study reports diarrhoea in eight kittens aged about three months in a single house which were regularly dewormed and vaccinated and daily fed with a commercial available diet with high fiber (5%). Cats were reported to be passing watery and odorless stools for the past week in spite of treatment with antibiotics and supportive medications. Clinical examination revealed dehydration, dullness and poor body condition. Faecal samples examination did not reveal any parasitic ova. Based on the history, clinical and laboratory examination the condition was diagnosed as high fiber induced diarrhoea in kittens and was successfully recovered with the shift of diet to low fiber and supplements of probiotics.

The effects of diet-shifting from invertebrates towards fruit on the condition of autumn-migrant Catharus thrushes.

Migration is an energetically challenging and risky life history stage for many animals, but could be supported by dietary choices en route, which may create opportunities to improve body and physiological condition. However, proposed benefits of diet shifts, such as between seasonally available invertebrates and fruits, have received limited investigation in free-living animals. We quantified diet composition and magnitude of autumn diet shifts over two time periods in two closely-related species of migratory songbirds on stopover in the northeastern U.S. (Swainson's thrush [Catharus ustulatus], long-distance migrant, N = 83; hermit thrush [C. guttatus], short-distance migrant, N = 79) and used piecewise structural equation models to evaluate the relationships among (1) migration timing, (2) dietary behavior, and (3) morphometric and physiological condition indices. Tissue isotope composition indicated that both species shifted towards greater fruit consumption. Larger shifts in recent weeks corresponded to higher body condition in Swainson's, but not hermit thrushes, and condition was more heavily influenced by capture date in Swainson's thrushes. Presence of "high-antioxidant" fruits in fecal samples was unrelated to condition in Swainson's thrushes and negatively related to multiple condition indices in hermit thrushes, possibly indicating the value of fruits during migration is related more to their energy and/or macronutrient content than antioxidant content. Our results suggest that increased frugivory during autumn migration can support condition, but those benefits might depend on migration strategy: a longer-distance, more capital-dependent migration strategy could require stricter regulation of body condition aided by increased fruit consumption.