Set Phrases Research Articles

Kommunikative und expressive Formeln des Deutschen in Internettexten: ein diskursorientierter Ansatz

AbstractThis paper deals with the functioning of expressive and communicative formulas of modern German in computer-mediated discourse. The set phrases analysed are pre-formed sentence-value word combinations that serve as a means of expression of various speech intentions and emotions. These linguistic units are known to evade a uniform classification scheme, with boundaries between different groups being indistinct. The set phrases considered in this work are viewed as a functional-semantic field which includes communicative and expressive formulas and some mixed types. By discussing their cultural specificity – provided by units containing symbolic components, as well as by entities in various areas of national life, and fixed phrases of obscure literary origin – I attempt to explore their intertextual potential for further contribution to studies in intercultural communication.Expressivity, intertextuality, multimedia impact and interactivity have been defined as constitutive characteristics of computer-mediated discourse. The units discussed keep the tone of asynchronous online communication humorous and help to establish communicative closeness. In online media, the language game comes to the fore: a common phenomenon is semantic transformation often performed as simultaneous actualisation (ambiguity) of literal and idiomatic meaning, causing additional communicative effects. In combination with the informative part of a headline, these units act as emotional and evaluative indicators of media texts.Due to its technological features, internet communication allows easy combination of visual and verbal channels of information, and so there is frequent play between language images and digital images, especially in photo and video hosting services.My analysis of different online genres has shown that in internet communication, the core of the functional-semantic field (i.e. the most frequently used units) acquires added discursive value. The universal nature of their creative use, appeal, entertainment and community-building functions was also ascertained.

Динамика гендерных репрезентаций в интернет-общении (на материале китайского языка)

The article describes changes in the vision of gender of the Chinese that are currently taking place due to globalization and the increased role of the feminist movement in the world. The article aims to describe words and phrases that reflect the contemporary gender vision of native Chinese speakers as well as to analyze the influence of global agenda on the formation of ideas about femininity and masculinity. The paper reviews the theoretical studies of Chinese scientists in the field of gender linguistics, determines the areas where the influence of Western theories is the most significant. The article describes the social status of men and women in three main periods: pre-imperial and imperial China, communist China in the 20th century, modern China in the 21st century. However, the main focus of the article is on the modern Chinese language, as there is a lack of studies in this field. Gender representations reflected in the Xinhua Internet Dictionary （新华 网络 语言 词 典） and the online dictionary 小鸡 词典 were selected as the research material. We selected words and set phrases containing such characters as 女 “woman” and 男 “man”, studied their description provided by vocabulary entries, reviewed gender representation in media.

Hola Followers! Content Analysis of YouTube Channels of Female Fashion Influencers in Spain and Ecuador

The objective of this article is to analyze the contents and unconventional advertising narratives of the eight most important women in the world of fashion in Spain and Ecuador in relation to the number of followers and points of view, in order to identify the discursive and esthetic strategies and narratives that may reflect the keys to their experience as prescribers, through a content analysis based on the interpretation of the five most viewed videos between 2018 and 2019 from four Spanish to four Ecuadorian YouTube channels ( ME = 40) based on a three-round Delphi analysis sheet with a validity of W = 0.828 and α = .947. The content is analyzed from a qualitative perspective, which allows an in-depth exploration of the dimensions and indicators of impact and influence on YouTube channels. The research presents the findings that the influencers reviewed use crutches, idioms, and set phrases to identify with their audience. The audiovisual narrative is simple, maintaining its amateur style. Advertising positioning in the channels analyzed is given by identifying the brand in the spoken discourse, the presence of brand logos, advertisements and promotions, and the presence of products of the sponsoring brands.

Pandemic as Reflected in English and Russian

The article deals with verbal and non-verbal means of reflecting the present situation of pandemic in humour from linguo-cultural and intercultural point of view. The pandemic brought about numerous outbursts both in traditional mass media and social networks. One of its manifestations is a great number of jokes, anecdotes and memes about COVID-19. Various online platforms present innumerable humorous short texts. Mass media and social networks generate jokes, memes, anecdotes and caricatures. The corpus is drawn from popular social media platforms (Russian and English) and examined through derivational, stylistic, pragmatic and interpretative analyses. The paper explores the ways of creating a humorous effect on the word level (puns based on blends), on the level of short monologues and short dialogues (jokes). Special attention is paid to internet memes – multimodal (polycode) user-generated digital elements consisting of pictures or photos plus captions. The humorous effect in jokes is revealed by means of defeated expectancy when both primary and secondary meanings are manifested. The humorous effect in memes is achieved with the help of text reminiscences displayed by proper names and set phrases typical of various types of texts. The main topics distinguished in these humorous texts are quarantine, social distancing, mask wearing, hand washing and distance learning both in Russia and in English-speaking internet communities. It is shown that humour — even coronavirus and quarantine jokes — bring people together and help them feel connected in the face of adversity and uncertainty. The research will be continued by means of involving German and French humorous texts.

Sign language lexicography: a case study of an online dictionary

As a growing field of study within sign language linguistics, sign language lexicography faces many challenges that have already been answered for audio-oral language material. In this paper, we present some of these challenges and methods developed to help navigate the complex lexical classification field. The described methods and strategies are implemented in the first Czech sign language (ČZJ) online dictionary, a part of the platform Dictio, developed at Masaryk University in Brno. We cover the topic of lemmatisation and how to decide what constitutes a lexeme in sign language. We introduce four types of expressions that qualify for a dictionary entry: a simple lexeme, a compound, a derivative, and a set phrase. We address the question of the place of classifier constructions and shape and size specifiers in a dictionary, given their peculiar semantic status. We maintain the standard classification of classifiers (whole entity and holding classifiers) and size and shape specifiers (SASSes; static and tracing specifiers). We provide arguments for separating the category of specifiers from the category of classifiers. We discuss the proper treatment of mouthings and mouth gestures concerning citation forms, derivation and translation. We show why it is difficult in sign language to distinguish synonyms from variants and how our proposed phonological criteria can help. We explain how to construct a semantic definition in a sign language and what is the solution for multiple meanings of one form. We offer simple guidelines for forming proper examples of use in a sign language. And finally, we briefly comment on the process of the translation between sign and spoken languages. We conclude the paper with a summary of roles that Dictio plays in the ČZJ-signing community.

Mechanisms of conveying phraseological units in the novel “Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin [based on the translation into the Portuguese language by Dario Moreira Castro Alves

The object of this research is the phraseological units in translation of the novel “Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin into the Portuguese language. Analysis is conducted on the concept of phraseological units and methods of their classification in the scientific literature. The article aims to examine the methods of conveying phraseological units in the two noncognate language, as well as reveal ethnocultural differences in the set phrases denoting similar concepts. The author believes that understanding and proper interpretation of phraseological units are essential for translating foreign literature, learning and teaching foreign languages. The research employs the methods of contextual and comparative analysis of phraseological units of the Russian culture in translation of the novel, which allowed discerning the differences in cognition of the text among the native speakers of Russian and Portuguese languages. The novelty of this article lies in referring to the only existing translation of the novel “Eugene Onegin” into the Portuguese language, which was has not previously become the object of linguoculturological research. It is revealed that phraseologisms are widely used in the novel and can be classified by the degree of stability, metaphoricity and motivation word collocations. The author indicates the differences in linguistic means of conveying phraseological units in the Russian and Portuguese languages, as well as determines the ways of conveying phraseologisms in translation of the novel, such as phraseological equivalent, analogue, calquing, and descriptive translation. In translation of the meanings of Russian phraseologisms into the Portuguese language, the translator was able to achieve considerable accuracy, although it is difficult to convey the national flavor of the novel to the fullest.  

Creativity as a Necessary Component of Entrepreneurial Competencies Development

Aim. To study and design the theoretical and methodological framework for understanding the phenomenon of creativity, creativeness and their role in development of entrepreneurial competencies.Tasks. The key objective of this article is to conceptualize the category of “entrepreneurial creativity” as a necessary component of entrepreneurial competencies development, and its significance for innovation and project activities in the modern economic paradigm.Methods. The basis of this paper is the transdisciplinary approach combining philosophical and ethical provisions of the theory of synergetics, metaethics, and semantic theories that are fundamental for research in the field of entrepreneurship theory. The research is based on the methodological approach that provides synthesis of the methods of individualism and holism, which makes it possible to expand the range of issues of the theory of entrepreneurship development in accordance with the intersubjective nature of economic reality and the irrational component of entrepreneurial behavior.Results. Detachment from practical interest should transform intellectual limits into limitless possibilities of entrepreneurial creativity. Irrationality in logic, which is beyond reason, contradicts logic, is usually opposed to the rational as the reasonable, expedient, justified. Any innovative problem seems to be solved not only exclusively in terms of the rational. The task of the theory of entrepreneurship is to combine the rational and the irrational on the basis of the new methodological principle and in accordance with regularities, if any.Conclusions.In modern Russian, for words “creativity” and “creativeness”, the tendency of interchangeability is increasing, due to merging of their semantic fields. However, the analysis shows that they have different collocability, and form various set phrases. Metalinguistic reflection requires strengthening the “creativity — creativeness” opposition. Creativity is associated with non-standard solutions or deviant behavioral features, while for innovative activities, the primary meaning of creativeness is important: creation of something new, previously non-existent. Creative destruction, which is the consequence of implementing the creative innovative idea, inevitably results in changing the present, and constructing the future. In search of meaningful response to increasing complexity and uncertainty of world development, it is necessary to design such a scientific paradigm that will allow building in entrepreneurs’ worldview structural links connecting ethics, aesthetics and economics in a way that they contribute to development of a positive suprasystem effect in the field of innovation and project activities. This is an important methodological technique for deepening self-consciousness.

Нумерологическое исследование на материале русских фразеологизмов с числительными

This article is devoted to a study of numerology on the material of Russian phraseological units with numerals. A phraseme, also called a set phrase, idiomatic phrase, multi-word expression (in computational linguistics), or idiom, is a multi-word or multi-morphemic utterance where at least one of whose components is selectionally constrained or restricted by linguistic convention such that it is not freely chosen. The purpose of this study is to analyze meanings and usage of phraseological units with numerals. Article materials can be useful for teaching Russian language and literature.

Indonesian-English Code-Switching of Sacha Stevenson as a Canadian Bilingual Speaker on <i>YouTube</i>

Code-switching or language alternation is one of the linguistic strategies that is widely used in bilingual community, including Indonesia. This study attempts to find out the types and reasons of code-switching on YouTube as employed by a Canadian bilingual speaker, Sacha Stevenson. The data used for this study were transcripts of five videos about Indonesian culture taken from Sacha’s YouTube channel. Based on the analysis, there are a total of 313 occurrences of code-switching from Indonesian to English. Poplack’s theory (1980) was applied for the classification of code-switching. The findings showed that the most frequent type is inter-sentential code-switching (42%), followed by intra-sentential code-switching (34%), and the least is tag-switching (24%). This study also explored the reasons for code-switching by applying the theory proposed by Grosjean (1984). It was found that all code-switching occurrences fit into the 11 categorizations of code-switching reasons. This shows a variety of different factors that influence the use of code-switching. The most frequent reason which triggered code-switching is to fill a linguistic need for lexical item, set phrase, discourse marker, or sentence filler (31%). In addition to the 11 reasons proposed by Grojean (1984), another reason for code-switching was found, i.e., to gain popularity.

Tourism discourse: linguosemiotic peculiarities of functionality of paremias

The subject of this article is the determination and analysis of linguosemiotic peculiarities of functionality of phraseological units of syntactic level in the tourism discourse. The object of this article is the Russian and German paroemias as a hyperonym in relation to proverbs, proverbial expressions and sententious sayings. These set phrases have grammatical structure of the sentence and are used in the literal and figurative sense. The goal of this research is to determine and analyze the semantic, syntactic and pragmatic peculiarities of implementation of paroemias in guidebooks and brochures in the Russian and German languages, which demonstrate ethnocultural specificity of the peoples. The author employs interdisciplinary approach, which is substantiated by active use of the scientific category “tourism discourse" in different sciences. The main conclusion consists in the presence of linguosemiotic peculiarities of the functionality of paremias in guidebooks and brochures. Using the analysis of lexical-semantic structure of the Russian and German paremias, the author determines the semantic dominants of paremiological representation of the concepts of tourism discourse in the Russian and German linguocultures that contain ethnocultural stereotypical representations of the peoples on traveling; and this defines the author’s special contribution. The novelty lies in proving fact that the functionality of paremias in the language of guidebooks and brochures has syntactic peculiarities that are revealed in their integration into the context for cohesiveness of the tourism discourse. Pragmatic peculiarities are determined by the choice of strategies and tactics aimed at drawing attention of the tourists and increasing interest in the services rendered.

ЭЛЕМЕНТЫ РАЗГОВОРНОГО ЯЗЫКА В ТЕКСТЕ ПЕРЕВОДНОГО ПРОИЗВЕДЕНИЯ КАЮМА НАСЫРИ «АБУГАЛИСИНА КЫССАСЫ»

This study explores how elements of the colloquial language are used in “Abugalisina kyissasy” (‘The Legend of Abugalisina’, ‘Abugalisina’) by Kayum Nasyri, a famous Tatar enlightener and ethnographer. To make it easier for his readers to understand the literary material, K. Nasyri used a number of effective techniques. Firstly, he defined all Arab-Persian words using the Tatar language: individual words, as well as figurative expressions and phrases were explained; he “duplicated” them with set phrases or phraseological units having a similar meaning in the Tatar colloquial language. The loanwords were both translated and followed by a synonym in the Tatar language: the Arab and Persian words are found in the characters’ speech, while the author’s speech provides their translations into the Tatar language. K. Nasyri skillfully inserts Tatar folk proverbs and sayings, figurative comparisons, and artistic metaphors into the text, thereby emphasizing particular places and strengthening the impact of the described events on the reader. All the above-described techniques contribute to the convergence of the language of K. Nasyri’s work with the folk and colloquial form of the Tatar language.

Le refus de contact d’un enfant avec un parent dans un contexte de divorce conflictuel – Partie II. Évaluation clinique à partir de l’analyse de 60 situations

BackgroundSituations where a child or an adolescent refuses all contact with a parent in the course of a high conflict separation or divorce are frequent in child psychiatry and result in numerous judicial litigations concerning visiting rights. This article proposes landmarks allowing to identify the multiples processes at stake. PopulationSixty situations performed in consultations or in child psychiatry expertise targeting children aged 3 to 17. MethodThe situations have been regrouped according to the way they were presented to clinicians or magistrates, then analyzed thanks to our clinical knowledge and available research. ResultsSeveral clinical configurations have frequently appeared. Every situation - such as children's behavior, total support on a parent, arguments for contact refusal apparently poorly justified, children using set phrases, well-founded complaints, declaration of sexual abuse - can be interpreted in different ways according to their clinical context. In order to understand the processes at stake requires having a solid clinical experience and to recognize signs of child abuse. Minors may have objective reasons to refuse contact with a parent, or be projective towards them or be caught up in a loyalty conflict, or be under the control of one of the parents who often appears to be paranoid or perverse, or else be ill-treated by this parent. The authors propose some landmarks for an expert and clinical practice, in particular derived from Quebec research. This required methodological precision contrasts with the way some situations are promptly described as parental alienation syndromes, a concept which is denied by the scientific community. ConclusionResearch associating child clinicians and the judicial system appears to be necessary in France in order to determine what decisions are the most adapted considering these different circumstances.

ПОРІВНЯННЯ МОЖЛИВОСТЕЙ ЗАСТОСУВАННЯ КОНТЕКСТУАЛЬНОГО МЕТОДУ ПРИ ВИВЧЕННІ ЛЕКСИКОЛОГІЇ ТУРЕЦЬКОЇ ТА АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ МОВИ

The relevance of the English Language learning is substantiated in the article for many reasons. First, because of its prevalence in the whole world. Secondly, due to the huge number of lexical and stylistic features, such as context, polysemantic words, direct word order in sentence, variability (British, American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand English). Thirdly, owing to its clarity, conciseness, emotional colouring and individuality. The article defines the possibilities of the contextual method using in the Turkish and English language Lexicology studying. Such teaching methods as descriptive (for a general description of the context); contextual-interpretive (to identify the functional and semantic meaning of a word), as well as a method of creating a problem situation using a contextual task were used for achieving the goal. The features of the English language as the language of international communication are determined; the place of the context in English is considered and the role of the English context in comparison with the Turkish one is defined. The difficulties of translating words from English and vice versa due to their ambiguity are stipulated. Especially it concerns synonymic dominants, idioms, set phrases and phrasal verbs. Context has been shown to understand the meaning of a word or phrase. Depending upon the context and lexical surroundings, most words in common vocabulary can change their meaning in both Turkish and English.

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The article focuses on the issue of participation of lexical-semantic variants of the polysemous noun Eng. fire in the process of formation of phraseological units. The goal of our article is to find out how the semantic range of the polysemous noun Eng. fire is reproduced in the structure of idioms. To achieve this goal, the author uses the following research methods: descriptive, comparative, the method of dictionary definitions, the method of phraseological application to establish phraseological meanings, as well as the method of establishing the content of language stereotypes. Occasionally, the historical and etymological methods were used, as well as methods of frame modeling and quantitative estimation. The author describes the peculiarities of actualization of the system of lexical meanings of the polysemantic noun Eng. fire at the phraseological level and establishes structural types of phraseological units which are formed with the help of semantemes of the noun Eng. fire. The object of our research is English phraseological units sharing the common key lexical component � polysemanti� noun of thermal semantics Eng. fire. We conduct the research using not only nominative and predicative idiomatic phraseological units, but also comparative phrases, proverbs and speech formulae. In modern phraseology the problem of interrelationships between the lexico-semantic and lexico- -phraseological levels of the language system is currently important. The specificity of functioning of polysemous adjective with thermal meaning Eng. fire in phraseological units is analysed within the framework of research of the general problem of interrelationships between the lexico-semantic and lexico-phraseological levels of the language system. The author finds general trends of sense development of this noun within the structure of idiomatic set phrases sharing the common key lexical component Eng. fire. The analysis shows that lexical meanings of the polysemantic of noun Eng. fire at the phraseological level are actualized unevenly and selectively. In the structure of nominative and predicative idiomatic phraseological units and comparative phrases the key noun Eng. fire implements almost exclusively its original �thermal� semanteme as a formative one, but its lexical semantemes used in the formation of idioms rarely coincide with its phraseo-derived meanings. Individual semantemes of the noun Eng. fire differ with respect to the number of phrasemes they occur in, besides there are many phraseo-derived meanings that don�t have the corresponding lexico-semantic variants of the noun Eng. fire, though some of them have synonymic lexical meanings. To continue the research of semantic relations between lexical and phraseological levels of the language we should involve to our analysis other parts of speech. This aspect, together with the use of information from other languages is necessary for our better understanding of the role of high temperature characteristics, objects and processes in linguistic world image.

The concept of schastie/bakht (happiness) in the Russian and Uzbek phraseology

The article considers the concept of Schastie/Bakht (Happiness) in the Russian and Uzbek linguistic cultures as one of the most important universal concepts with a national component. On the one hand, the study is conditioned by the interest of modern contrastive linguistics in the comparative research of concepts with a national component. On the other hand, it continues scientific works concerned with the concept of Schastie in the Russian linguistic culture and the concept of Bakht in the Uzbek linguistic culture. The novelty of this study is determined by the fact that this concept is compared for the first time using set phrases of two languages and based on an analytical review of the relevant sources. The article aims at determining common and different components for the Uzbek and Russian linguistic cultures with regard to the Happiness concept (according to the data obtained from the analysis of the above-mentioned material). The article presents the results of an analytical review of studies on the concept of Schastie in the Russian linguistic culture and the concept of Bakht in the Uzbek linguistic culture, as well as contrastive analysis of phraseological units related to the verbalization of these concepts. To analyze and compare idioms of two unrelated languages (Russian and Uzbek) and ways of verbalizing the concept, the authors used the method of linguistic and cultural description supplemented by the component analysis of lexemes and the comparative method. As a result, general and specific meanings for the words “schastie” and “bakht” were identified, as well as general and specific components of the Happiness concept.

ФОРМУВАННЯ ІДЕОЛОГІЧНОЇ КАРТИНИ СВІТУ В УКРАЇНСЬКОМУ СЛОВНИКАРСТВІ РАДЯНСЬКОЇ ДОБИ

Language in totalitarian states of the XX century was a part of a powerful ideological mechanism, a means of formation of a mindset stereotype with definite evaluative attitudes and judgments. In the Soviet political context, the language was considered as an important tool for establishing the leading ideology, materialistic worldview, and socialist culture. The dissemination of ideological constructs took place through the official press, radio and television. They were constantly repeated in political speeches, textbooks and scientific works. The influence of totalitarianism also affected linguistics and its practical part – lexicography. The goal of the article is to highlight the techniques of ideological manipulations used in the lexicographic practice of the Soviet period in order to strengthen communist ideology and create an ideological view of the world. The study is based on the Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language in 11 volumes (1970–1980). The article clarifies that the introduction of ideological and evaluative component into the semantic structure of words belonging to different topical groups, including the names of political sphere, scientific directions, philosophical, moral and ethical concepts, names of time intervals etc., the explanation of their meaning by using newspeak set phrases, led to the formation of a biased worldview and system of the ideological values of a Soviet man. It is found out that lexicographic methods of the ideologization of words are the use of positive evaluative or negative evaluative attributive phrases in dictionary articles, creation of antonymous contexts, transformation of meanings and change of lexical compatibility of words, use of politicized illustrative material. In this way, the dictionaries contained premises and myths of the totalitarian era, which contributed to their dissemination and introduction into the public consciousness, the formation of an evaluative worldview according to the guidelines of the political system.

Устные предания о происхождении эпоса «Джангар» сказителя Дж. Джуны

“Khobuksar – the land of ‘Jangar’”. This set phrase that came to stay on the pages of newspapers, journals and TV programs became one of the reasons why among Oirats of Xinjiang there was an idea that Khobuksar is the place where the epic texts of “Jangar” originated. That being said, among the population of Khobuksar - an autonomous province of Mongolia there are a lot of legends and stories that state that the national epos originated on their land. Another reason for this statement is that Khobuksar is the birthplace of a famous Oirat storyteller Javyn Juna. To a great extend a secret about the origin of the text of the epic repertoire of the storyteller contributed to that. It is a well-known fact that J.Juna wrote the texts himself. There is a legend that the storyteller from time to time would go up into the mountains where in a desolate cave he kept ancient manuscripts of the texts of “Jangar” and after coming back he would perform new songs. In the given article the author gives context analysis of the most popular legends about the origin of “Jangar”.

Formulae, Wordplay, Verses and More: Where Humor Research Meets Phraseology

This paper aims to examine the meeting points between phraseology and humor research, focusing on the role and the functions of fixed phrases in humor discourse. The examples to illustrate certain aspects of usage of fixed phrases for joke purposes are taken mainly from social media such as Facebook and Twitter and include jokes in English, German, Lithuanian, Russian, and Polish. In the course of the investigation, a distinction ought to be made between set phrases (idioms in the narrower sense of the term, proverbs, catch phrases etc.) and fixed phrases in general. Set phrases (phrasemes) have an “added value” regarding their meaning – be it a figurative element, be it ready-made reasoning or behavioral models in short form in the case of adages. In humor discourse idioms – and proverbs – are used mainly for wordplay, in which both the literal and the idiomatic meaning are activated. The wordplay can happen also in verse form. Adages can be transformed or twisted resulting in new parodistic or funny sayings. Fixed phrases outside of the phraseology can be separated into two groups: phrases typical for a particular discourse type and joke frame related phrases. The former, as means to evoke a certain frame, are used in parodistic jokes (e.g., the phrase ladies if he evokes the dating tips frame). The latter constitute a distinct class of fixed phrases which can be found only in the humor discourse: these phrases act as joke formulae und provide a basis for bigger or smaller joke categories. Certain phrases in this group, such as checks notes or nothing like deserve a mention as irony markers with a distinctive evaluative character. The shared feature of all these idiomatic and non-idiomatic phrases is that they are well-known, re-occur in the language and, in that respect, can considered belonging to the sphere of interests of phraseology. Regarding the main functions of fixed phrases in the humor discourse, they can contribute to the social play, provide the cues to switch to a nonserious humor mindset or express evaluation – from mild mockery to aggressive ridicule.

The culture of language or culture in language? The question in the context of teaching Polish as a non-native language

This article discusses the modes of defining cultural content in teaching Polish as a foreign language. It proposes strategies for introducing cultural knowledge and knowledge about culture in the practice of teaching Polish as a non-native language. It seems appropriate to offer a division into:
 
 The cultural semantics of lexemes, set phrases and expressions;
 The culture (meaning the correct use) of expression and the linguistic norm; and
 Culture content and areas conveyed to foreigners through the language they are learning.
 
 This discussion fits the debate regarding the language which we teach to foreigners. In it, researchers have offered examples of semantic distortions (mostly shifts), and the dangers of private or rather extra-curricular linguistic contact with a language’s native users. It also carries reflections on linguistic regionalisation and its presence in the practice of teaching Polish as a non-native language.

Bohoričev prispevek slovenskemu slovaropisju

Bohorič’s Contribution to Slovene Lexicography Lexicography was one of Bohorič’s central activities devoted to the 16th-century Slovene literary language. He is believed to be the author of three types of dictionaries: (1) a lost trilingual glossary with Latin as the source language, compiled for pedagogical use (Nomenclatura trium linguarum, ca. 1580); (2) the index in DB 1584 (perhaps also the shorter one in DB 1578), which contains also dialectal synonyms as well as equivalents from Croatian dialects and thus enables understanding of the central-Slovene lexicon; (3) six Slovene-Latin-German glossaries included in the grammar Arcticae horulae ſucciſivae (1584): the first three described nomina (nouns and adjectives) of all three genders, while the other three described verbs of the main three conjugation types (-am, -em, -im). In terms of their informativity, the glossaries included in the grammar are of several different types. In addition to grammatical information contributing to a better knowledge of the 16th-century Slovene literary language, they also provide lexicological information closely related to the modes of lexicographic presentation. Both features are an important contribution to the beginnings and further development of Slovene lexicography. Slovene headwords are semantically defined by their foreign-language equivalents. In addition, their semantic structure is outlined by one-word or phraseological subentries (with attested meanings, sub-meanings, and terms for specific types, such as štala ‘barn’—volovska štala ‘oxen barn’, ovčja štala ‘sheep barn’, kozja štala ‘goat barn’; set phrases with established use). Entries with subentries and the order of entries itself also bring into focus various types of semantic relations between lexical items, including synonymy, where pairs of loan and native synonyms stand out in particular (e.g. punt—zaveza ‘bond’, gmerati—množiti ‘to multiply’); antonymy (e.g. čast ‘honor’—nečast ‘disgrace’); the semantic difference between the source word and its derivative (e.g. kamen ‘stone’—kamčič ‘little stone’). Verbal entries with added subentries demonstrate various types of formation of aspectual pairs, e.g. sejati—obsejati ‘to sow’, nagniti—nagibati ‘to lean’. In cases where members of the pair differ by the type of action (e.g. gibati se—ganiti se ‘to move’), the semantic difference is added to the aspectual one. A re-comparison of Bohorič’s glossaries and Megiser’s dictionaries—his quadrilingual dictionary with German as the source language (MD 1592) and multilingual dictionary with Latin as the source (MTh 1603)—that included data on how widely the usage of this lexicon was spread, confirmed the hypothesis that the glossaries were one of Megiser’s main lexicographic sources of Slovene equivalents. (This data is one of the results of the complete excerption of the Slovene texts in book publications in the period of 1550–1603). Megiser’s consideration of Bohorič’s glossaries is most clearly evident in approximately 90 words that cannot be found in other works. In addition, the glossaries proved to be a useful reference work for citing widespread and commonly used lexicon. A typological difference between the compared lexicographic works is reflected in differences in their informativity as well as in the number of foreign-language equivalents and included Slovene equivalents. The increased number of Slovene synonyms in Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries was the result of Megiser’s inclusion of the Register (1584) and his ever-improving knowledge of the Slovene literary language and some Slovene dialects (e.g., Carinthian). Keywords: Adam Bohorič, lexicography, glossaries in Bohorič’s grammar, dictionary informativity, Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries