Separate Language Research Articles

Linguistic areas in the history of the Mansi language

The article is devoted to the reconstruction of historical contacts of the Mansi language with Samoyedic languages. On the modern linguistic map of Western Siberia these languages are not in direct contact, however, linguistic data make it possible to reconstruct several contact situations of varying degrees of temporal depth. I suppose that in the region of the Upper Ob there was a historical linguistic area, which included the Mansi, Selkup, and Kamas languages. In the eastern periphery of this zone, some limited contacts between the Selkups and the Kets took place. The Khanty language was widespread north of the Mansi language, possibly, in the northern periphery of this area. The ancestor of the modern Eastern Khanty language was located closest to the Mansi language. The Mansi contacted with the speakers of the Southern Samoyedic languages most probably across the rivers of Chizhapka and Parabel. Within the same area E. G. Bekker identifi ed the zone of distribution of the Kamas toponymy. During the period of these contacts, in my opinion, Kamas and Selkup were already two separate languages, but the dialectal diff erentiation of Selkup had not yet begun: the article proposes a number of Mansi-Selkup areal isoglosses, equally represented in all Selkup dialects. Subsequently, the relative position of the Khanty and Mansi languages on the linguistic map of Western Siberia changed. The Eastern Khanty penetrated the Upper Ob area. Then the Northern and Southern Khanty settled in a wide zone stretching from north to south along the course of the Middle Ob and Irtysh. This interrupts the connection between the Mansi and the Eastern Khanty and cuts off the Mansi from the Upper Ob area. During this period, the modern “Ostyak” area including the Selkup, Ket, and Khanty languages began to form in the Upper Ob region. The formation of this “Ostyak” area should be attributed to the period after the dialectal differentiation of the both mentioned Uralic languages: this area includes only the easternmost dialects of Khanty and only the Northern and Tym dialects of Selkup.

A New Methodology for the Analysis of Visuals in Legal Works

The goal of this Article is to introduce a comprehensive methodology for the analysis of visuals used for communication in legal works, by which I mean transactional and litigation documents, legal instruments, primary and secondary sources of law, and legal informational materials. To date, the scholarship on visuals in legal communications has been heavily descriptive, with some forays into the ethical and practical considerations of the use of “visualized” legal works. No one has yet devised a comprehensive analytical methodology that draws upon the disciplines of visual literacy, visual cultural studies, visual rhetoric, and mise en scène analysis to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of actual examples of highly visual legal documents and critique their efficacy and propriety in a variety of legal settings. This Article will fill that gap in the literature. The new methodology evaluates the following aspects of visual legal works: • Immediate Visual Context - Analysis of Meaning -Taxonomy of Purpose and Function • Immediate Verbal Context • Visual Cultural Context • Mise en Scène and the Rhetorical Topic of Arrangement • Visual Rhetoric and the Ethical and Professional Propriety of the Work. Lawyers, judges, and law students typically do not receive training in visual literacy regarding the reading and interpretation of visual images, and much less so in the design principles required to create the most effective visuals for legal communications and legal instruments, such as contracts. This condition persists in spite of the fact that visual images can communicate across language and cultural barriers, taking advantage of the enormous speed and power of visual communication. In equal measure, knowledge and understanding of these principles will enable lawyers to design and use effective visuals, and to challenge or respond to the visual legal communications proffered by their opponents in litigation or negotiation, or their counterparts in a transaction. My intent in this Article and the methodology it presents is to examine visual elements as visuals, not as a translation or alternative form of verbal communication. The approach of trying to translate visual works into verbal arguments or verbal elements of legal reasoning limits the scope and the effectiveness of the visual works, because communication through visuals employs a separate visual language, and not in a literal or verbal sense. The methodology proposed in this Article is a set of tools that can help verbally oriented law-trained writers to become better readers, evaluators, and creators of

Language and Culture: Multiculturalism Models

The paper begins by introducing the conception of language and culture, and considers the connection between the two through the three presumptive connections encouraged by Wardhaugh: language structure determines language operation, artistic values determine the way we use language, and the claim that a relationship between the two does not live. In the ultimate part of the paper, the counteraccusations of such a relationship are bandied as they pertain to language education and policy. With first language learners immersed in their own culture, connections between language and culture frequently no way come to question. For foreign language learners, where true artistic complications and understandings are positioned well beyond the text, an understanding of language assumes a veritably different form. While it is possible to separate language and culture, one must question the validity and counteraccusations similar separation brings. The significance of artistic faculty is also considered for its relevance to language education and the counteraccusations it holds for language literacy and policy. The final part concludes the specifics of the four multiculturalism models, i.e., multiculturalism education, cultural integration, context for choice, and cultural language. Focusing on the multiculturalism models, it is presented how each model may contribute to business and corporations rather than discuss the philosophical stance of multiculturalism, influence on communication, and exemplify the methodologies for multicultural education. Nevertheless, the important role of multiculturalism is endorsed for language learners and all those involved in language education.

Mapping the Sea Islands Culture in Paule Marshall's Praisesong for the Widow

The Sea Islands off the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina function as a vital bridge between African Americans and their African ancestry, retaining a unique African culture that had been forgotten in the mainland communities. The Gullah/Geechee people, the inhabitants of the Sea Islands, are the most distinctive group of African Americans, who maintained a separate creole language and are unique from any other subset of African Americans. Paule Marshall’s vision of the Sea Islands in her 1983 novel Praisesong for the Widow illustrates the mythical landscape as a place for excavating and forging cultural as well as historical connections. The article focuses on the protagonist’s displaced historical memory, lost cultural connections, and self, which are awakened on the Sea Islands. Marshall links the Sea Islands and the African diaspora through the space of the Caribbean, emphasizing on discovering and recovering kinship ties. The protagonist’s understanding and awareness of a diasporic Gullah/Geechee identity comes to light when the Sea Island’s heritage wins over her oppressive American culture. The African diaspora is reunited in this novel through storytelling, dance, music, and rituals of reverence and remembrance, thereby enabling the protagonist to acknowledge and identify her Gullah roots and culture. As retrieval of real and imagined cultural inheritances is crucial to the construction and process of creolized identities, Marshall posits the Sea Islands as central and a site of cultural expression in the novel. Marshall’s depiction of the Sea Island’s role in Praisesong as a unique southern landscape serves as a healing ground for physical and cultural loss.

Semantic-stylistic status of brandonyms

The article deals with the consideration of brandonyms from the standpoint of defining the status of lexical affiliation and their role in the stylistic organization of different texts. The article analyzes the issues aimed at clarifying such terms as «universal», «etrangism», «barbarism», as well as defines «brandonym», «text», determines the ability of brandonyms to acquire the characteristics of stylistics of certain messages, including advertising texts, and those that promote a particular idea implicitly. The onym space of any text is a reflection of the subjective assessment of the word by the author, therefore, the article emphasizes the peculiarities of introducing brandonyms to the texts of the above functional styles of modern Ukrainian standard language, as well as the specifics of mental and linguistic view of the world of an individual – the author of certain messages – as a representative of ethnolinguistic culture, the native of a separate language and philosophy.
 The relevance of the article is due to the need to trace functioning of proper names, in particular brandonyms, to try to establish their status in different texts.
 The aim of the article is to define the status of brandonyms from the standpoint of their affiliation to a certain group of vocabulary and stylistic purpose in the texts of literary and journalistic styles.
 Research methods are due to the peculiarities of the analysis of proprial vocabulary, which involves the use of descriptive method and a comprehensive approach to considering the functioning of specific lexical units in a particular text and their potential to create a certain stylistic intonation and power in achieving the overall goal of discourse formulation.
 In our opinion, the article is a necessary study in the research of Ukrainian onomastics, in particular the stylistic functions of proprietary names in various texts.
 Conclusions. Brandonyms cannot be assigned to one specific group: «barbarism», «entragism», or have only an understanding of it as a linguistic universal as all other propriatives both purely for theoretical reasons and in terms of functioning in a separate text, the studied language units may vary in the aspect of a clear assignment to one named group of vocabulary. From a stylistic point of view, brandonyms are not endowed with superpowerful properties of creating some sublime or lyrical intonation of the text, but have considerable potential to help achieve the goal of literary style – to reproduce the socio-temporal color of the described events and phenomena – and journalistic – providing voluntative function, and to act as a dominant of linguistic ambivalence.

Mutual intelligibility of a Kurmanji and a Zazaki dialect spoken in the province of Elazığ, Turkey

Abstract We present the first results of a large project concerned with the mutual intelligibility between Zazaki and Kurmanji dialects spoken in Eastern Anatolia. There is an ongoing debate on the classification of Kurmanji and Zazaki as separate languages or as dialects of the same language, Kurdish. However, there is no scientific study of how well speakers of Zazaki and other dialects of Kurdish can understand each other. In this paper, we present the results of a pilot investigation where we tested the mutual intelligibility of 69 Kurmanji and Zazaki participants by means of a word translation task and asked the participants to estimate how well they could understand the other language variety. The results showed that overall the mutual intelligibility was rather low. There was a significant interaction between the effects of gender and language. Zazaki males identified more words correctly than Kurmanji males while Kurmanji females had higher intelligibility scores than Zazaki females. We suggest linguistic (lexical) and non-linguistic (attitudes and amount of exposure) explanations for the intelligibility results. We also have a closer look at the intelligibility of individual words to gain a greater understanding of the reasons for the asymmetric intelligibility results.

Difficulties in Translating Conjunctions in Arabic and English Languages: Study Based On Translation Students of South Eastern University Of Sri Lanka

Each language has its own set of rules. Based on this, the rule of conjunctions in the Arabic language differs from the English language, because they come from two separate language families. Thus, the learners of Arabic and English languages as a foreign language face difficulty and commit mistakes in identifying meanings of conjunctions. Therefore, this Study focuses on identifying difficulties when translating. This study employed a descriptive and contrastive methodology. The data were gathered from interviews and questionnaire that were distributed to all specialization Students in linguistic and translation from South Eastern University of Sri Lanka. MS Excel Software was used for the data analysis. The findings show, the students face difficulties in determining appropriate conjunctions and understanding their meaning, using suitable words. Based on the researcher's findings, continuous training in translation with caring of grammatical errors is recommended. This research will help foreign language learners, translators and students كل لغة لها مجموعة القواعد الخاصة بها. وبناءً على ذلك ، فإن قاعدة الاقتران في اللغة العربية تختلف عن اللغة الإنجليزية ، لأنها تأتي من عائلتين لغويتين منفصلتين. وبالتالي ، يواجه متعلمي اللغتين العربية والإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية صعوبة ويرتكبون أخطاء في تحديد معاني الاقتران. لذلك ، تركز هذه الدراسة على تحديد الصعوبات عند الترجمة. استخدمت هذه الدراسة منهجًا وصفيًا ومقابلًا. تم جمع البيانات من المقابلات والاستبيانات التي تم توزيعها على جميع طلاب التخصص في اللغويات والترجمة من جامعة جنوب شرق سريلانكا. تم استخدام برنامج MS Excel لتحليل البيانات. تظهر النتائج أن الطلاب يواجهون صعوبات في تحديد الاقترانات المناسبة وفهم معانيها باستخدام الكلمات المناسبة. بناءً على نتائج الباحث ، يوصى بالتدريب المستمر في الترجمة مع مراعاة الأخطاء النحوية. سيساعد هذا البحث متعلمي اللغات الأجنبية والمترجمين والطلاب.

Bi-accentism, translanguaging, or just a costume? Margaret Thatcher’s pronunciation and its portrayal in films as a case of sociolinguistic boundaries and ideologies

This paper discusses the extent to which some well-known traditional notions of English language studies, above all Received Pronunciation (RP), can be considered valid in light of present-day sociolinguistics. Language and superdiversity, translanguaging and related concepts are recent approaches to the variations that can be found in speech communities. Arguably, most speakers are not static but dynamic in that their linguistic repertoires consist of many styles and registers, as well as dialects, accents and/or separate languages. Terms such as monolingual speakers, homogeneous speech communities, separate named languages and dialects, even the names of accents, can only be considered as convenient approximations. Some of the most rigidly defined concepts seem to be those related to codified or standard dialects and accents. In this article, the example analyzed to illustrate the point is a comparison of the way in which the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, pronounced English in a Thames TV interview of 1987 and how her pronunciation was represented by two American actors: Meryl Streep in The Iron Lady (2011) and Gillian Anderson in Season 4 of The Crown (2020). The material aims to demonstrate the transcending of borders: those of RP and of individual bi- or multiaccentism.

All PSPACE-Complete Planning Problems Are Equal but Some Are More Equal than Others

Complexity analysis of planning is problematic. Even very simple planning languages are PSPACE-complete, yet cannot model many simple problems naturally. Many languages with much more powerful features are also PSPACE-complete. It is thus difficult to separate planning languages in a useful way and to get complexity figures that better reflect reality. This paper introduces new methods for complexity analysis of planning and similar combinatorial search problems, in order to achieve more precision and complexity separations than standard methods allow. Padding instances with the solution size yields a complexity measure that is immune to this factor and reveals other causes of hardness, that are otherwise hidden. Further combining this method with limited non-determinism improves the precision, making even finer separations possible. We demonstrate with examples how these methods can narrow the gap between theory and practice.

Developing intercultural competence through a linked course model curriculum: Mainstream and L2‐specific first‐year writing

Institutions of higher education in the United States continue to witness a dramatic shift in the spectrum of diversity in their student populations. Multiple variables of difference that mixed student demographics bring to university campuses make internationalization work necessary both inside and outside the classroom. Internationalization of higher education is a collaborative responsibility academic and nonacademic programs should share to facilitate the integration of various student populations within the broader culture of the university. However, there are few, if any, models for internationalizing introductory courses required of a large percentage of the student body, such as first‐year writing (FYW). In this article, the authors propose and argue for an intercultural competence–oriented approach to internationalizing writing programs through a linked course model curriculum that pairs international and domestic students in separate second language–specific and mainstream FYW classes. The linked course model curriculum develops and assesses students’ intercultural learning and writing skills as core learning outcomes. This article presents the curricular design and interventions, the research design of the study conducted across three semesters of curriculum implementation, and the reflective writing results from the pilot semester to communicate the preliminary effectiveness of this curricular model.

The Language of the Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and Identity in an Ex-Soviet Republic

The Language of the Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and Identity in an Ex-Soviet Republic

Resting-state functional MRI language network connectivity differences in patients with brain tumors: exploration of the cerebellum and contralesional hemisphere.

Brain tumors can have far-reaching impacts on functional networks. Language processing is typically lateralized to the left hemisphere, but also involves the right hemisphere and cerebellum. This resting-state functional MRI study investigated the proximal and distal effects of left-hemispheric brain tumors on language network connectivity in the ipsilesional and contralesional hemispheres. Separate language resting-state networks were generated from seeding in ipsilesional (left) and contralesional (right) Broca's Area for 29 patients with left-hemispheric brain tumors and 13 controls. Inclusion criteria for all subjects included language left-dominance based on task-based functional MRI. Functional connectivity was analyzed in each network to the respective Wernicke's Area and contralateral cerebellum. Patients were assessed for language deficits prior to scanning. Compared to controls, patients exhibited decreased connectivity in the ipsilesional and contralesional hemispheres between the Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area homologs (mean connectivity for patients/controls: left 0.51/0.59, p < 0.002; right 0.52/0.59, p < 0.0002). No differences in mean connectivity to the contralateral cerebellum were observed between groups (p > 0.09). Crossed cerebro-cerebellar connectivity was correlated in controls (rho = 0.59, p < 0.05), patients without language deficits (rho = 0.74, p < 0.0002), and patients with high-grade gliomas (rho = 0.78, p < 0.0002), but not in patients with language deficits or low-grade gliomas (p > 0.l). These findings demonstrate that brain tumors impact the language network in the contralesional hemisphere and cerebellum, which may reflect neurological deficits and lesion-induced cortical reorganization.

Unexpected words or unexpected languages? Two ERP effects of code-switching in naturalistic discourse

Bilingual speakers often switch between languages in conversation without any advance notice. Psycholinguistic research has found that these language shifts (or code-switches) can be costly for comprehenders in certain situations. The present study explores the nature of these costs by comparing code-switches to other types of unexpected linguistic material. To do this, we used a novel EEG paradigm, the Storytime task, in which we record readings of natural texts, and then experimentally manipulate their properties by splicing in words. In this study, we manipulated the language of our target words (English, Spanish) and their fit with the preceding context (strong-fit, weak-fit). If code-switching incurs a unique cost beyond that incurred by an unexpected word, then we should see an additive pattern in our ERP indices. If an effect is driven by lexical expectation alone, then there should be a non-additive interaction such that all unexpected forms incur a similar cost. We found three effects: a general prediction effect (a non-additive N400), a post-lexical recognition of the switch in languages (an LPC for code-switched words), and a prolonged integration difficulty associated with weak-fitting words regardless of language (a sustained negativity). We interpret these findings as suggesting that the processing difficulties experienced by bilinguals can largely be understood within more general frameworks for understanding language comprehension. Our findings are consistent with the broader literature demonstrating that bilinguals do not have two wholly separate language systems but rather a single language system capable of using two coding systems.

‘Not (yet) ready for the mainstream’ – newly arrived migrant students in a separate educational program

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to describe and analyze how school leaders as key actors in policy enactment understand, talk about and act in relation to Newly Arrived Migrant Students (NAMSs) enrolled in a separate Language Introduction Program in Sweden. Drawing on the work of Stephen J. Ball and colleagues, we argue that a particular discursive formation of NAMSs, operating within constrains of various contextual factors, has a decisive impact on how policy as text is interpreted and enacted. Discursively formulating NAMSs as having multiple challenges, beyond Swedish language and insufficient grades, introduces various barriers. Policy flexibility in combination with power disparities thus allows school leaders, framed within legitimacy of ‘rational explanations’ and ‘affirmative intentions’, to negotiate policy meanings which are not always working in the students’ best interests. Our empirically grounded and theoretically informed discussions showcase why there can be no inclusive education if NAMSs, during a protracted period, are physically, pedagogically and socially separated from mainstream structures. Consequently, and with the support in international research, we call for the overhaul of organizational approaches that allocate Newly Arrived Migrant Students to separate educational forms.

Споры о письменном языке в Ладакхе: консерваторы и реформаторы

Ladakhi is an idiom used mainly within Ladakh (a region that until 2019 was part of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir), as well as in the bordering areas of China and Pakistan. Goals. The paper discusses the development of Ladakhi as a written language and the controversy it leads to both in Ladakh and outside. Methods and Materials. The study analyzes various official documents issued by local administrative bodies of Ladakh, academic works and grammatical descriptions of the Ladakhi idiom, as well as interviews with residents of the region. The main methods of the field research conducted in Ladakh in 2010—2011 include participant observation, analysis of documentary sources, and interviewing. Results. Most Ladakhis consider Tibetan and Ladakhi to be the same language, often using the linguonym ‘Bhoti’ to refer to both the languages. Since the independent princedom of Ladakh was established in the 10th century AD, Classical Tibetan has been the dominant written language there, while other idioms have also been used in oral communication. For a long time, Ladakhi has existed in diglossia, its role being that of a ‘low’ language. Most government officials, education workers and Buddhist clerics in Ladakh still believe that Ladakhi is and should remain a spoken version of Classical Tibetan rather than an entirely separate language. They see any attempts to codify the Ladakhi language as sacrilege because in their opinion the Tibetan language was created by Thonmi Sambhota to put down sacred Buddhist texts, and so it should remain unchanged. However, the last four decades have seen some considerable changes. A few dozen books written in Ladakhi or translated into the language have been published. A number of issues of a magazine in spoken Ladakhi released, and Al-Baqarah, the second surah of Quran, was also published in Ladakhi. Whether Ladakhi should become a fully fledged written (literary) language is the subject of hot debates in contemporary Ladakh attracting increasing attention both in and outside the region.

Self-Translation and Bilingual Creation in Wayuu Literature: Complements and Incompatibility across the ‘Linguistic Divide’ in the Short Stories of Miguel Ángel Jusayú and Estercilia Simanca Pushaina

This article examines the themes of transformation in the literature of the Wayuu peoples. Focusing on two short stories written by Miguel Ángel Jusayú, ‘Ni era vaca, ni era caballo’, and Estercilia Simanca Pushaina, ‘El encierro de una pequeña doncella’, the aim is to analyse the ways in which the writers treat these themes across the bilingual and bicultural contexts of Wayuu society. These issues are tackled through the perspective of translanguaging and self-translation. Translanguaging views bilingualism as a holistic, vibrant corpus, rather than two separate languages, while self-translation focuses on the processes of interconnectedness and conflict in bilingual and bicultural texts. Employing these two complementary theories allows an analysis of the ways in which bilingual Wayuu writers produce multiple dialogues and differences not only between Spanish and Wayunaiki but also between these logographic systems and Wayuu supra-linguistic archives of knowledge and communication.

Problems on Terminology and Theoretical Description of Language Derivation Levels

The paper focuses on the system of terms used in Russian linguistics to denote the processes of language derivation. The existence of significant contradictions in their using is explained by the improper assignment of the generic term "derivation" to a separate language level – word formation. It is argued that a single-word non-attributive term should serve the purpose of nominating a concept that applies to all levels of the language. The terms denoting different varieties of derivation should include attributive characteristics, as it is in the case of terminology combination "semantic derivation". The features of the cognitive mechanisms underlying each of the types of derivation are determined, and the degree of their relevance to the development criterion as a core meaning of the lexeme "derivation" is established. A general typology of derivational processes is proposed. The term "derivation" within this typology is used for denoting the process of secondary nominative signs formation in hyperonimic sense, which includes the semantic, morphological and graphical derivation levels. The internal classification of each of the above-mentioned levels is developed. The main differences between them are presented with the help of formalized semantic records. The belonging of semantic and morphological derivation to the system language processes is proved, while graphoderivation is described as an aside-system phenomenon based on the game deconstruction of a language sign and violation of the conventions of its homogeneous semiotic representation.

Contribution of Nonverbal Cognitive Skills on Bilingual Children’s Grammatical Performance: Influence of Exposure, Task Type, and Language of Assessment

This study explores the contribution of nonverbal working memory and processing speed on bilingual children’s morphosyntactic knowledge, after controlling for language exposure. Participants include 307 Spanish–English bilinguals in Kindergarten, second, and fourth grade (mean age = 7;8, SD = 18 months). Morphosyntactic knowledge in English and Spanish was measured using two separate language tasks: a cloze task and a narrative language task. In a series of four hierarchical linear regressions predicting cloze and narrative performance in English and Spanish, we evaluate the proportion of variance explained after adding (a) English exposure, (b) processing speed and working memory, and (c) interaction terms to the model. The results reveal the differential contribution of nonverbal cognitive skills across English and Spanish. Cognition was not significantly related to performance on either grammatical cloze or narrative tasks in Spanish. Narrative tasks in English were significantly predicted by processing speed, after controlling for age and exposure. Grammatical cloze tasks in English posed an additional cognitive demand on working memory. The findings suggest that cognitive demands vary for bilinguals based on the language of assessment and the task.

INNER MUTUAL SEMANTIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL CORRELATION OF THE GERMANIC PRETERITE-PRESENT VERBS

Being the remarkable feature of all Germanic languages, the preterite-present group of verbs played a significant role in forming morphological units of analytical type. The process of analytisation caused the introduction of some verb forms, which appeared as a result of gradual grammaticalisation when a preterite-present verb fused with a verbal form (participle or infinitive) creating a new morphological category of finite verb (future tense, oblique mood). During the process of their development, transformation and coexistence, the preterite-present verbs were separated into a stable morpho-semantic group which generated the field of modality and made some verbs follow the same way of development and transformation. As a result, a new morpho-semantic sub-group of analogous verbs was formed when the group of preterite-present verbs received its stability and potentiality in the Germanic verb corpus. The inductive force of the preterite-present verbs was so powerful that even an individual verb was involved into the process of grammaticalisation following the patterns of analogous and preterite present verbs, too. The verbs of preterite-present group, analogous subgroup and the individual verb functioned and coexisted within the East, West and North (Scandinavian) Germanic languages. As a result of that historical coexistence all these verbs got not only the common features in morphological and semantic aspects, they simultaneously gained a set of individual features differing semantically. Only after a detailed comparison of morphological and semantic individual features of related (according to the Proto-Germanic nature of origin) verbs, is it possible to explain their specific involvement into the process of grammaticalisation or their further disappearance from usage on the edge of Old and Middle or Middle and New periods of language transformation and development. Remarks on the paradigm of preterite-present verbs help to reveal the specifics of the verb functions and trace the way of the analytical form creation in some separate Germanic languages. Paradigmatic rows demonstrate either close or distant relations between the Germanic languages in their geographical groups or even intergroup relations. These relations are really essential for further investigation. Only the East Germanic group with its main representative of the Gothic language disappeared without leaving any close relatives in the Middle and New Germanic periods. The Scandinavian languages where the reflection of Old Norse. The West Germanic languages had a really entangled way of development. Old High German and Old Saxon were reflected in the German language. Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon and Old Frisian were reflected in the English language. Old Frisian and Old Saxon were reflected in the Dutch and Frisian languages. Inner mutual semantic and morphological correlations of the Germanic preterite-present verbs help to indicate leading verbs which were involved into the process of the Germanic language analytisation.

Contribution of Kodavas to the Indian Armed Forces

Identity is a dynamic phenomenon constructed as a collective product of the actions, interactions, cognition and self-cognizance of human beings. In exploring identity as a product of individual factors and contextual - historical factors embedded in a socio-political context, this paper focuses on the contribution of the Kodavas, a community who form a substantial minority in the Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka to the Indian Armed Forces. Speaking a separate language, adhering to a clan-based social structure, following a belief system that is at substantial variance to other parts of the state, and at times even asserting a historical origin exterior to India, the group carries a larger number of markers that has led them to be regarded and portrayed as one of India’s groups of ‘internal exotics’. Based on literature, this paper aims to bring to light the historical relationship of this community with the Armed Forces. Further, the paper also initiates a discussion on the current status of military fervor among the Kodava youth and the necessary measures to be taken to uphold the warrior spirit of the Kodavas.