Secondary Particles Research Articles

Effect of alkali metal salt addition on disintegration of titania particles precipitated from tetraethyl orthotitanate in ethanol

AbstractInline (or in situ) photon density wave spectroscopy was used to monitor the disintegration of secondary titania particles into their primary particles. Photon density wave spectroscopy can be applied to determine the reduced scattering coefficient of a dispersion without dilution or calibration, and thus enables process analysis in materials that are usually unsuitable for established particle characterization techniques. In this work, amorphous titania particles were precipitated from tetraethyl orthotitanate in ethanol by addition of water in presence of different alkali metal salts (NaCl, KCl, CsCl, K2SO4) with concentrations between 0 and 1.6 mM. The present results suggest that the synthesized titania secondary particles disintegrate into their primary particles if the electrostatic repulsion between the primary particles is promoted. This can be achieved by an increased alkali chloride concentration in the synthesis or by addition of larger alkali metal ions. In contrast, the particles are only weakly charged upon addition of sulfate ions, and the disintegration stops. The conclusions drawn from photon density wave spectroscopy results are supported by gravimetric determination of the particle yield, dynamic light scattering measurements, zeta‐potential measurements, and electron micrographs. Additionally, the disintegration was driven to completion by addition of hydrochloric acid to create a transparent suspension of titania primary particles as small as 4.7 nm.

The effect of multi-scale second-phases on the microstructure evolution of a Mg–Al–Sn–Ca alloy during friction-stir processing

In the present work, the type, morphology and size of secondary phase particles in a Mg–4Al–2Sn-0.5Ca (ATX420) alloy are tailored through sub-rapid solidification (SRS) and aging treatment before friction stir processing (FSP) to systematically investigate their impact on microstructures and mechanical properties of the FSP ATX420 Mg alloy. The smaller eutectic CaMgSn phase with micro-defects in the as-cast SRS alloy is more likely to be broken during FSP, compared to the as-cast conventional solidification (CS) alloy. Additionally, nano-sized CaMgSn and Mg17Al12 particles precipitate in as-aged SRS alloy due to a high supersaturation solubility of solutes in the as-cast SRS alloy. These densely-distributed nano-sized precipitates in the as-aged SRS alloy increase the processing temperature by 60 °C during FSP, which results in less nano-sized precipitates in the stirring zone and grain growth of the α-Mg matrix. This leads to a decrease in hardness in the FSP-aged-SRS alloy (∼10 HV). Besides, the grain structure evolutions in the stirring zone and transition zone are systematically investigated for understanding the microstructure evolution during FSP in Mg alloys with eutectic phase.

Mn oxide conversion coating on AZ31B Mg alloy with hexafluorozirconate as an inhibitor in the permanganate conversion bath

Surface modification is essential for Mg alloys, including conversion coating, plasma electrolytic oxidation, organic coating, and plasma spraying. Permanganate conversion coating is a potential alternative to chromate coating for Mg alloys. A continuous MnO2 coating on commercial Mg alloys, which generally contain micrometric secondary phase particles, is still challenging. A thin, continuous MnO2 conversion coating layer on AZ31B Mg alloy was successfully prepared by adding hexafluorozirconate anions (ZrF62−) to an acidic permanganate conversion bath. AZ31B Mg alloy comprised α-Mg matrix and micrometric Al8Mn5 particles. In addition to MnO2 and MgO/Mg(OH)2, MgF2 was present in the coating formed in the presence of ZrF62−, but the amount of ZrO2 was scarce. The average thickness of the coating was reduced from 665 to 66 nm when 0.02 M ZrF62− was added. As a result, the contact resistance was reduced from 367 to 8.59 mΩ. Meanwhile, the corrosion resistance was improved. The uniformity of MnO2 coating was discussed, focusing on the Al8Mn5/Mg galvanic coupling effect.

High spatial-resolved source-specific exposure and risk in the city scale: Influence of spatial interrelationship between PM2.5 sources and population on exposure

Research on High Spatial-Resolved Source-Specific Exposure and Risk (HSRSSER) was conducted based on multiple-year, multiple-site synchronous measurement of PM2.5-bound (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter<2.5 μm) toxic components in a Chinese megacity. The developed HSRSSER model combined the Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) and Land Use Regression (LUR) to predict high spatial-resolved source contributions, and estimated the source-specific exposure and risk by personal activity time- and population-weighting. A total of 287 PM2.5 samples were collected at ten sites in 2018–2020, and toxic species including heavy metals (HMs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) were analyzed. The percentage non-cancer risk were in the order of traffic emission (48 %) > industrial emission (22 %) > coal combustion (12 %) > waste incineration (11 %) > resuspend dust (7 %) > OPE-related products (0 %) ≈ secondary particles (0 %). Similar orders were observed in cancer risk. For traffic emission, due to its higher source contributions and large population in central area, non-cancer and cancer risk fraction increased from 23 % to 48 % and 20 % to 46 % after exposure estimation; while for industrial emission, higher source contributions but small population in suburb area decreased the percentage non-cancer and cancer risk from 38 % to 22 % and 39 % to 24 %, respectively.

Study on induced radioactivity and individual dose evaluation in Gantry room for Varian ProBeam Proton Therapy System

Proton therapy has emerged as an advantageous modality for tumor radiotherapy due to its favorable physical and biological properties. However, this therapy generates induced radioactivity through nuclear reactions between the primary beam, secondary particles, and surrounding materials. This study focuses on systematically investigating the induced radioactivity in the gantry room during pencil beam scanning, utilizing both experimental measurements and Monte Carlo simulations. Results indicate that patients are the primary source of induced radioactivity, predominantly producing radionuclides such as 11C, 13N, and 15O. Long-term irradiation primarily generates radionuclides like 22Na, 24Na, and 54Mn etc. Additionally, this study estimates the individual doses received by medical workers in the gantry room, the irradiation dose for patient escorts, and the additional dose to patients from residual radiation. Finally, the study offers recommendations to minimize unnecessary irradiation doses to medical workers, patient escorts, and patients.

Charge exchange of slow highly charged ions from an electron beam ion trap with surfaces and 2D materials

Abstract Electron beam ion traps allow studies of slow highly charged ion transmission through freestanding 2D materials as an universal testbed for surface science under extreme conditions. Here we review recent studies on charge exchange of highly charged ions in 2D materials. Since the interaction time with these atomically thin materials is limited to only a few femtoseconds, an indirect timing information will be gained. We will therefore discuss the interaction separated in three participating time regimes: energy deposition (charge exchange), energy release (secondary particle emission), and energy retention (material modification).

Superior strength-ductility synergy of Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy rod achieved by drawing at elevated temperatures

Mg alloys with superior strength-ductility synergy is highly desired for applications. In this study, the as-extruded Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr (JDBM) alloy rod was subjected to single-pass drawing over a range of temperature 200 ∼ 600 °C to enhance the properties. After drawing, a more homogeneous and refined microstructure developed because of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) and dynamic precipitation (DP). With the increase of drawing temperature, grain sizes increased first and then decreased due to the competition of grain nucleation and growth, while the sizes of the secondary phase particles varied in the same way. And a nearly basal texture evolved from a rare earth texture of the as-extruded sample. The yield strength of the as-drawn samples increased by ∼2.2 times with a sacrifice of elongation to fracture at different level. The high yield strength mainly originats from grain boundary and dislocation strengthening. An optimal combination of high yield strength (∼301 MPa) and good ductility (elongation to fracture of ∼19 % and improved strain hardening capacity) was obtained after drawing at 500 °C. The yield strength enhancement is mainly derived from texture and dislocation strengthening. Grain and secondary phase particle refinement, large volume fraction of low angle grain boundaries and reduced geometrically necessary dislocations are considered to be beneficial to the good ductility. In addition, a novel method has been proposed to fabricate materials with superior strength-ductility synergy by deformation with large strain at high temperatures to activate severe DP.

Modification of the Ni-Rich Layered Cathode Material by Hf Addition: Synergistic Microstructural Engineering and Surface Stabilization.

The rapid decline of the reversible capacity originating from microcracks and surface structural degradation during cycling is still a serious obstacle to the practical utilization of Ni-rich LiNixCoyAl1-x-yO2 (x ≥ 0.8) cathode materials. In this research, a feasible Hf-doping method is proposed to improve the electrochemical performance of LiNi0.9Co0.08Al0.02O2 (NCA90) through microstructural optimization and structural enhancement. The addition of Hf refines the primary particles of NCA90 and develops them into a short rod shape, making them densely arranged along the radial direction, which increases the secondary particle toughness and reduces their internal porosity. Moreover, Hf-doping stabilizes the layered structure and suppresses the side reactions through the introduction of robust Hf-O bonding. Multiple advantages of Hf-doping allowed significant improvement of the cycling stability of LiNi0.895Co0.08Al0.02Hf0.005O2 (NCA90-Hf0.5), with a reversible capacity retention rate of 95.3% after 100 cycles at 1 C, as compared with only 82.0% for the pristine NCA90. The proposed synergetic strategy combining microstructural engineering and crystal structure enhancement can effectively resolve the inherent capacity fading of Ni-rich layered cathodes, promoting their practical application for next-generation lithium-ion batteries.

Protective Nanosheet Coatings for Thiophosphate‐Based All‐Solid‐State Batteries

AbstractSuperionic sulfide solid electrolytes (SEs) are of considerable interest for application in solid‐state batteries, but suffer from limited stability. When in combination with state‐of‐the‐art cathode active materials (CAMs), severe degradation at the CAM/SE interface occurs during electrochemical cycling. To improve upon the interfacial stability, inert coatings can be applied to the CAM particles, with the goal of preventing direct contact to the SE. In this study, different methods of depositing coatings, including hexagonal boron nitride, tungsten sulfide and exfoliated ((CH3(CH2)3)4N)4Nb6O17, in the form of nanosheets onto the free surface of a Ni‐rich LiNixCoyMnzO2 (NCM) CAM are examined and compared with one another. While dry coating is shown to produce relatively uniform coatings (good surface coverage), the secondary particle morphology of the NCM makes ball milling as a mechanical deposition method less attractive. In contrast, deposition from dispersions in organic solvents yields protective coatings with a lower degree of surface coverage. The different materials are electrochemically tested in liquid‐ and solid‐electrolyte‐based lithium‐ion batteries. A stabilizing effect from nanosheet coating is only observed for the cells with lithium thiophosphate SE.

Antimony Doping Enabled Radially Aligned Microstructure in LiNi0.91Co0.06Al0.03O2 Cathode for High‐Voltage and Low‐Temperature Lithium Battery

AbstractNi‐rich layered oxide cathode material with Ni contents greater than 90% is considered as a highly promising candidate for lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) owing to its remarkable specific capacity and cost‐efficiency. However, severe capacity degradation caused by the structural collapse and interfacial instability with electrolyte under high voltage greatly hinders the practical application. Here, an antimony (Sb)‐doped LiNi0.91Co0.06Al0.03O2 (Sb‐NCA91) cathode is proposed, where the Sb doping modifies the morphology of primary particles and enables the radially aligned microstructure. This unique microstructure can disperse the anisotropic mechanical stress caused by the H2‐H3 phase transformation, and mitigate the shrinkage and expansion of the primary particles during high‐voltage and low‐temperature cycling, thus inhibiting the formation of microcracks and structural deterioration. Meanwhile, the closely arranged radial spokes allow fast ion transport in the secondary particles and effectively improve the rate performance and low‐temperature performance of the cathodes. As a result, the Sb modified cathode demonstrates superior capacity retention of ≈84% at 1 C after 200 cycles in 2.7–4.5 V at 25 °C, while the pristine NCA91 cathode only retains ≈79%. Additionally, the capacity retention at −20 °C is significantly increased from ≈61% (NCA91) to ≈88% (Sb‐NCA91) after 100 cycles.

Pitch-derived P-doped carbon/GeP3 composite via ball milling towards enhanced sodium-ion storage

GeP3 is a promising anode material for sodium ion battery due to better conductivity, relatively high theoretical capacity and improved mechanical endurance compared to phosphorus and other phosphides. However unsatisfied rate capability and cycling stability is still an annoying issue that hinders the application of GeP3. Here, GeP3 was hybridized with P doped carbon (PPC) derived from low-cost coal tar pitch to prepare composite electrode. Through ball-milling process, the GeP3 and PPC was homogenously mixed and form fused, secondary particles as confirmed by electron microscope. The formation of P-C and P-O-C bond between GeP3 and carbon matrix was evidenced by XPS, and prompted by P doping level and O content in PPC. The electrochemical performance of the composite electrodes was evaluated, demonstrated much enhanced properties compared to bare GeP3 and also GeP3/carbon black electrode. High reversible capacity of 781 mAh/g was achieved by GeP3/PPC-950 at 0.05 A/g. At higher current density of 2 A/g, the capacity can maintain at 360 mAh/g, 46% of the value that obtained at 0.05 A/g. The correlation between the structure of carbon and battery performance was discussed. The improvement in battery performance can be attributed to suppressed volume expansion and good conductive network of the GeP3/PPC composite, which affected by P doping level and O content of PPC.

Tailoring the formability and planar anisotropy of Al-Mg-Si-Cu-Zn alloys via cross hot rolling and two-stage cold rolling

Al-Mg-Si-(Cu) alloys have shown great potential in responding to the growing demand for automotive lightweight, but the limited formability and high planar anisotropy have always hindered their application. The present study designs a novel method for simultaneously improving the formability and planar anisotropy of Al-Mg-Si-Cu-Zn alloys by coupling cross hot rolling and two-stage cold rolling. The results have shown that the multi-scale distribution of secondary particles and strong Brass{011}<112> and S{123}<634> texture are induced by the designed cross hot rolling process, which weakens the recrystallization texture after solution treatment, especially Cube{001}<100> orientation. Meanwhile, the designed two-stage cold rolling process (intermediate cold rolling process with high reduction + final cold rolling process with low reduction) promotes the precipitation of unstable precipitates (Mg2Si and Q phase), and inhibits the formation of Copper{112}<111> orientation, which further weakens the recrystallization texture and results in the dispersion distribution of recrystallization texture. Accordingly, the formability and planar anisotropy of the Al-Mg-Si-Cu-Zn alloy are simultaneously improved without strength loss by coupling the designed cross hot rolling with two-stage cold rolling, and the influence mechanism of texture on r value has been analyzed by Visco-Plastic Self-Consistent (VPSC) model.

Development of Highly Machinable Ti Alloy with Exceptional Tensile Properties by Er Alloying Element Addition

This study demonstrates that the addition of the rare earth element Erbium (Er) significantly enhances the machinability and tensile properties of titanium (Ti). Pure Ti alloys and Er-added Ti alloys with 0.5-1.1 wt.% Er content were prepared, and their microstructure, machinability, and tensile properties were compared. Two different types of Er secondary phase particles were identified in the microstructure: pure Er and Er-oxide. The amounts of these particles increased with higher Er content. The machinability of the Eradded Ti alloys was significantly improved due to the ability of Er secondary particles to cut machining chips or absorb heat from localized deformation within the Ti matrix. In addition, Er-added Ti alloys exhibited higher strength than pure Ti. The strength enhancement was attributed to grain refinement induced by the Er element. Er secondary phase particles reduced the β grain size during solidification, and they also served as preferential sites for α nucleation during the β → α phase transformation, resulting in a refined microstructure. In addition, the Er secondary phase contributed to the strength enhancement through the well-known precipitation strengthening mechanism. Although ductility decreased with higher Er content due to the increased amount of Er secondary phase particles, 0.5 wt.% Er-added Ti showed no such degradation; its ductility was comparable to that of pure Ti. Er-oxidation was expected to reduce oxygen content within the Ti matrix, enhancing intrinsic Ti ductility; this effect offset the adverse impact on ductility caused by the Er secondary phase particles. Above 0.5 wt.% Er, the adverse effects caused by the Er secondary phase particles overwhelmed the beneficial effect caused by the reduction in oxygen content. The present findings will contribute significantly to the development of highly machinable Ti alloys with superior tensile properties.

Investigating Cathode Electrolyte Interphase Formation in NMC 811 Primary Particles through Advanced 4D-STEM ACOM Analysis

Investigating Cathode Electrolyte Interphase Formation in NMC 811 Primary Particles through Advanced 4D-STEM ACOM Analysis

Long term trends in source apportioned particle number concentrations in Rochester NY

During the past two decades, efforts have been made to further reduce particulate air pollution across New York State through various Federal and State policy implementations. Air quality has also been affected by economic drivers like the 2007–2009 recession and changing costs for different approaches to electricity generation. Prior work has focused on particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm. However, there is also interest in the effects of ultrafine particles on health and the environment and analyses of changes in particle number concentrations (PNCs) are also of interest to assess the impacts of changing emissions. Particle number size distributions have been measured since 2005. Prior apportionments have been limited to seasonal analyses over a limited number of years because of software limitations. Thus, it has not been possible to perform trend analyses on the source-specific PNCs. Recent development have now permitted the analysis of larger data sets using Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) including its diagnostics. Thus, this study separated and analyzed the hourly averaged size distributions from 2005 to 2019 into two data sets; October to March and April to September. Six factors were resolved for both data sets with sources identified as nucleation, traffic 1, traffic 2, fresh secondary inorganic aerosol (SIA), aged SIA, and O3-rich aerosol. The resulting source-specific PNCs were combined to provide continuous data sets and analyzed for trends. The trends were then examined with respect to the implementation of regulations and the timing of economic drivers. Nucleation was strongly reduced by the requirement of ultralow (<15 ppm) sulfur on-road diesel fuel in 2006. Secondary inorganic particles and O3-rich PNCs show strong summer peaks. Aged SIA was constant and then declined substantially in 2015 but rose in 2019. Traffic 1 and 2 have steadily declined bur rose in 2019.

Imaging technology based on the interaction between muon and material

Muon imaging technology, as an emerging detection method, is widely used in various fields. Muons can be classified into cosmic ray muons and accelerator muons based on their origins. Cosmic ray muons stand out for wide energy range, strong penetrating power and no artificial radiation. These characteristics make cosmic ray muon imaging technology adept at achieving nondestructive imaging of target objects. Presently, the commonly used imaging methods include scattering and transmission imaging technologies that leverage muon information for imaging. Additionally, muon and muonic secondary particle coincidence imaging technology utilizes information from secondary particles generated during the interaction between muons and target objects for imaging. The accelerator muon, distinguished by its high flux, strong monochromaticity, and adjustable energy, enables rapid and multidimensional imaging of target objects at various depths. Furthermore, it facilitates the analysis of material elements through muonic X-rays. This article provides insights into the production process and physical characteristics of muons, the fundamental principles of muon imaging technology, and its diverse applications across disciplines. It also explores the current development status and emerging trends in fields such as mineral resource exploration, archaeological studies, and nuclear safety.

Extensive air showers and atmospheric electric fields. Synergy of space and atmospheric particle accelerators

Various particle accelerators operate in the space plasmas, filling the Galaxy with high-energy particles (primary cosmic rays). Reaching the Earth's atmosphere, these particles originate extensive air showers (EASs) consisting of millions of elementary particles (secondary cosmic rays), covering several km2 on the ground. During thunderstorms, strong electric fields modulate the energy spectra of EAS secondary particles, changing the shower size (number of EAS electrons) and altering the primary particle's estimated energy and frequency of the surface array triggers. Impulse amplifications of particle fluxes (the so-called thunderstorm ground enhancements, TGEs) manifest themselves as large peaks in the time series of count rates of particle detectors located on the Earth’s surface. Free electrons are abundant at any altitude in the atmosphere, from small to large EASs. These electrons serve as seeds for electron accelerators, which operate in the thunderous atmosphere and send particle avalanches in the direction of Earth's surface and into space (terrestrial gamma flashes, TGFs). EAS cores randomly hitting arrays of particle detectors also generate short bursts of relativistic particles. For years, particle detectors, electric field sensors, and lightning locators have gathered information about the complex interactions of secondary particle fluxes, electric fields, and lightning flashes. This information is crucial for establishing a field of high-energy physics in the atmosphere. Plain language summaryCorrelated measurements of particle fluxes modulated by strong atmospheric electric fields, registration of broadband radio and optical emission from atmospheric discharges, and registration of electric fields and various meteorological parameters lead to a better understanding of the complex processes of particle-field interactions in the terrestrial atmosphere. The cooperation of cosmic rays and atmospheric physics has led to the development of models of the origin of particle bursts recorded on the Earth's surface, vertical and horizontal profiles of electric fields, initiation of lightning flashes, etc. Interdisciplinary atmospheric science primarily requires monitoring particle fluxes around the clock by synchronized networks of identical sensors that record and store multidimensional data in databases with open, fast, and reliable access. The advances in multidimensional measurements over the past decade significantly intensified the development of new integrated models of atmospheric electricity and electron acceleration, giving more insight into understanding the modulation effects posed on EAS particles in the strong atmospheric electric fields.

Study of Microphysical Signatures Based on Spectral Polarimetry during the RELAMPAGO Field Experiment in Argentina

Abstract Weather radars with dual-polarization capabilities enable the study of various characteristics of hydrometeors, including their size, shape, and orientation. Radar polarimetric measurements, coupled with Doppler information, allow for analysis in the spectral domain. This analysis can be leveraged to reveal valuable insight into the microphysics and kinematics of hydrometeors in precipitation systems. This paper uses spectral polarimetry to investigate precipitation microphysics and kinematics in storm environments observed during the Remote Sensing of Electrification, Lightning, and Mesoscale/Microscale Processes with Adaptive Ground Observations (RELAMPAGO) field experiment in Argentina. This study uses range–height indicator scan measurements from a C-band polarimetric Doppler weather radar deployed during the field campaign. In this work, the impact of storm dynamics on hydrometeors is studied, including the size sorting of hydrometeors due to vertical wind shear. In addition, particle microphysical processes because of aggregation and growth of ice crystals in anvil clouds, as well as graupel formation resulting from the riming of ice crystals and dendrites, are also analyzed here. The presence of different particle size distributions because of the mixing of hydrometeors in a sheared environment and resulting size sorting has been reported using spectral differential reflectivity (sZdr) slope. Spectral reflectivity sZh and sZdr have also been used to understand the signature of ice crystal aggregation in an anvil cloud. The regions of pristine ice crystals are identified from vertical profiles of spectral polarimetric variables in anvil cloud because of sZh &lt; 0 dB and sZdr values around 2 dB. It is also found that the growth process of these ice crystals causes a skewed bimodal sZh spectrum due to the presence of both pristine ice crystals and dry snow. Next, graupel formation due to riming has been studied, and it is found that the riming process produces sZh values of about 10 dB and corresponding sZdr values of 1 dB. This positive sZdr indicates the presence of needle/columnar secondary ice particles formed by ice multiplication processes in the riming zones. Last, the temporal evolution of a storm is investigated by analyzing changes in hydrometeor types with time and their influence on the spectral polarimetric variables.

Clogging caused by coupled grain migration and compaction effect during groundwater recharge for unconsolidated sandstone reservoir in groundwater-source heat pump

In unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs, presence of numerous movable grains and a complex grain size composition necessitates a clear understanding of the physical clogging process for effective groundwater recharge in groundwater-source heat pump systems. To investigate this, a series of seepage experiments was conducted under in situ stress conditions using unconsolidated sandstone samples with varying grain compositions. The clogging phenomenon arises from the combined effects of grain migration and compaction, wherein the migration of both original and secondary crushed fine-grain particles blocks the seepage channels. Notably, grain composition influences the migration and transport properties of the grains. For samples composed of smaller grains, the apparent permeability demonstrates a transition from stability to decrease. In contrast, samples with larger grains experience a skip at the stability stage and directly enter the decrease stage, with a minor exception of a slight increase observed. Furthermore, a unique failure mode characterized by diameter shrinkage in the upper part of the sample is observed due to the combined effects of grain migration and in situ stress-induced compaction. These testing results contribute to a better understanding of the clogging mechanism caused by the coupled effects of grain migration and compaction during groundwater recharge in unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs used in groundwater-source heat pump systems.

Reliability Prediction of Radiation Induced Failures in Semiconductor Packages

The growth and usage of semiconductor components has risen greatly due to evolution of applications in industries such as aerospace, defense, and automotive, in both the commercial and government sectors. Among the different types of components that make their way into such applications, digital logic and memory-based devices are of prime importance due to the ever-demanding need to store and compute vast amounts of data. This brings to the forefront the reliability of such components, especially in demanding applications in aerospace and defense where components are exposed to extremely harsh environments where high performance is critical. This is where we find that reliability is largely dependent on the susceptibility of semiconductor components to radiation induced effects - total ionizing dose (TID) and single event effects (SEE). Optimization in design, process, and packaging could make microelectronics more reliable to the radiation effects. Packaging material and thickness affect the incident flux of radiation on microelectronics and can help mitigate both dose and SEE effects in electronics. Additionally, packaging materials should not generate a high flux of secondary particles when exposed to environmental radiation (an example is alpha emissions from impurities in package mold compound or underfill). In this paper, the behavior of semiconductors at the component level due to radiation effects is evaluated. A reduced order model approach is presented where the analysis is performed at the functional block level then aggregated into component. The behavioral model can be used to predict the behavior across different operating, design, and process conditions.