Sea Brine Research Articles

Steam Stripping of Bromine from Sea Brine: Mass-Transfer Analysis of Randomly Packed Columns

Mass transfer data have been collected on stripping of bromine from aqueous solution at different flow rates of liquid and steam using Rasching and Pall Ring packings randomly packed in glass columns (6.25 to 90 cm diameter) and tower constructed by using granite slabs having square cross-section (25 cm × 25 cm). In the present study, the model proposed by Wagner et al. [1] for distillation considering gas phase resistance as the controlling resistance is modified wherein liquid phase resistance is considered as the controlling resistance for mass-transfer. The modified model and model proposed by Castillo et al. [2] for stripping of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from water have been successfully applied to the experimental data on debromination of sea brine. Average deviation between observed and calculated value of height of transfer unit based on the modified model of Wagner et al. [1] is 20.9 and 10.7% for bromide-bromate solution and bittern, respectively. The average deviation between observed and calculated overall volumetric liquid phase mass transfer coefficient is 16.62, 15.13 and 84.19% for debromination of bittern using pilot plant data, commercial bromine plants, and sodium bromide-bromate solution, respectively, based on correlations given by Wagner et al. [1]. Similar results based on Castillo et al. [2] model are 34.43, 49.69 and 26.80%, respectively. Volumetric liquid phase mass transfer coefficient for stripping of VOCs from water is in the range of 0.001-0.008 (1/s) whereas in the present study it varies from 0.001 to 0.017 (1/s). In other words, steam stripping of bromine from aqueous systems appears comparatively easier than stripping of VOCs from water.

Joint use of TEM and MRS methods in a complex geological setting

Transient Electromagnetic (TEM), known also as Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) and Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) methods were applied jointly to investigate variations in lithology and groundwater salinity in the Nahal Hever South area (Dead Sea coast of Israel). The subsurface in this area is highly heterogeneous and composed of intercalated sand and clay layers over a salt formation, which is partly karstified. Groundwater is very saline, with a chloride concentration of 100–225 g/l. TEM is known as an efficient tool for investigating electrically conductive targets like saline water, but it is sensitive to both the salinity of groundwater and the porosity of rocks. MRS, however, is sensitive primarily to groundwater volume, but it also allows delineating of lithological variations in water-saturated formations. MRS is much less sensitive to variations in groundwater salinity in comparison with TEM. We show that MRS enables us to resolve the fundamental uncertainty in TEM interpretation caused by the equivalence between groundwater resistivity and lithology. Combining TEM and MRS, we found that the sandy Dead Sea aquifer filled with Dead Sea brine is characterized by a bulk resistivity of ρ x > 0.4 Ωm, whereas zones with silt and clay in the subsurface are characterized by a bulk resistivity of ρ x < 0.4 Ωm. These observations are confirmed by calibration of the TEM method performed near 18 boreholes.

Kinetics of gypsum nucleation and crystal growth from Dead Sea brine

The Dead Sea brine is supersaturated with respect to gypsum ( Ω = 1.42). Laboratory experiments and evaluation of historical data show that gypsum nucleation and crystal growth kinetics from Dead Sea brine are both slower in comparison with solutions at a similar degree of supersaturation. The slow kinetics of gypsum precipitation in the Dead Sea brine is mainly attributed to the low solubility of gypsum which is due to the high Ca 2+/SO 4 2− molar ratio (115), high salinity (∼280 g/kg) and to Na + inhibition. Experiments with various clay minerals (montmorillonite, kaolinite) indicate that these minerals do not serve as crystallization seeds. In contrast, calcite and aragonite which contain traces of gypsum impurities do prompt precipitation of gypsum but at a considerable slower rate than with pure gypsum. This implies that transportation inflow of clay minerals, calcite and local crystallization of minerals in the Dead Sea does not prompt significant heterogeneous precipitation of gypsum. Based on historical analyses of the Dead Sea, it is shown that over the last decades, as inflows to the lake decreased and its salinity increased, gypsum continuously precipitated from the brine. The increasing salinity and Ca 2+/SO 4 2− ratio, which results from the precipitation of gypsum, lead to even slower kinetics of nucleation and crystal growth, which resulted in an increasing degree of supersaturation with respect to gypsum. Therefore, we predict that as the salinity of the Dead Sea brine continues to increase (accompanied by Dead Sea water level decline), although gypsum will continuously precipitate, the degree of supersaturation will increase furthermore due to progressively slower kinetics.

Geochemical History of the Dead Sea

Geochemical History of the Dead Sea

Engineering behavior of the Lisan Marl as a dyke foundation material: Dead Sea, Jordan

Problems have occurred with dykes constructed on the Lisan Marl to retain brine pumped from the Dead Sea, which is chemically processed to produce potash. In this study the engineering behavior, collapse potential and compressibility of the Lisan Marl were assessed by undertaking laboratory tests with both natural, distilled water and brine as the media. The results showed that the liquid limit and fine particles increased when the soil was mixed with fresh/distilled water compared with brine water. The soil can be classified as highly compressible with a low undrained shear strength. In terms of collapsibility, the soil could be classified as slightly collapsible upon inundation with distilled water and moderately collapsible when soaked in Dead Sea brine. The results are important when determining the height and nature of the dykes.

Human-induced geological hazards along the Dead Sea coast

The Dead Sea is a terminal lake whose level is currently dropping at a rate of about 1 m per year due to the over exploitation of all its tributaries. The lowering started about four decades ago but geological hazards appeared more and more frequently from the end of the 1980s. The water level lowering is matched by a parallel groundwater level drop, which results in an increasing intensity of underground and surface water flow. The diagonal interface between the Dead Sea brine and the fresh groundwater is pushed downwards and seawards. Nowadays, sinkholes, subsidence, landslides and reactivated salt-karsts affect wide coastal segments. Until now, mainly infrastructures were damaged and few people/animals were injured, but the ongoing development of tourism in this very attractive situation will increase the risk if precautionary measures are not included in the development plans. This paper discusses the main observations made all around the Dead Sea and shed a light on the differences between the geological hazards of the western shore (Israel, Palestinian Authority) and the eastern shore (Jordan). It is the first attempt to bring together an overview of the human-induced geological hazards encountered along the Dead Sea coast.

Lithological-mineralogical zonality of sulfide cyclothems in the Yaman-Kasy and Saf’yanov massive sulfide deposits (Urals)

Formulation of the general concept of hydrothermal-sedimentary massive sulfide formation is related to the development of models of Red Sea brines and Black Smokers with different lithological interpretations of the deposition mechanism for stratified sulfide sediments. The first model is based on the precipitation of hydrothermal sulfide particulates from waters of an anoxic basin and the formation of stratified ore sediments [3, 5]. According to the second model, stratified ores are formed during the submarine destruction of hydrothermal edifices and transport of the ore clast material by turbid flows to flanks of hydrothermal fields [1]. In ancient massive sulfide deposits, stratified sulfide ores have generally lost the primary features of chemogenic or clastogenic sediments due to diagenetic or metamorphic transformations. Elucidation of signatures of the diagenesis of clastogenic sulfide beds would make it possible to choose the optimal model.

10Be in Lake Lisan sediments — A proxy for production or climate?

The geochemical behavior of 10Be in the modern Dead Sea hydrological–limnological system was studied in order to evaluate the feasibility of using Dead Sea and Lake Lisan (the late Pleistocene precursor of the Dead Sea) sediments as archives of the variations in the 10Be production rate. 10Be concentrations in detrital and aragonite material from Lake Lisan laminated sediments were compared to those measured in modern dust, terra rossa soil (aeolian in origin), loess from the Negev Desert, flood suspended load and waters along a rain-flood development pathway (the transition from rain to incipient runoff and fully developed floods). 10Be concentrations decreased throughout the flood development profile, from 8.2 × 10 3 atoms g − 1 in the runoff down to ~ 1 × 10 3 atoms g − 1 in Dead Sea brine due to fast removal of 10Be by the soil and dust particles. Thus, most of the 10Be in the lake is contained within the detrital sediments that collect the 10Be transported by particles from the surrounding terrain (e.g. desert dust with 1.6 ± 0.8 × 10 8 atoms g − 1 and terra rossa soil-material with up to 12.5 ± 0.5 × 10 8 atoms g − 1 ). The high-stand periods of Lake Lisan were characterized by annual deposition of silty-detritus sediments reflecting rapid transfer of desert dust to the lake by floods. Indeed, the bulk sediments of Lake Lisan (in which 10Be is associated mainly with silty-detritus) display 10Be concentrations similar to those of desert dust. This demonstrates that 10Be variations were modulated by climate (i.e., particle transport). Significant positive 10Be peaks (up to 1.6 × 10 8 atoms g − 1 ) appear during intervals of geomagnetic anomalies in Lake Lisan stratigraphy and in the global record (i.e. during the Laschamp geomagnetic event at ~ 41 ka BP). This indicates that 10Be atmospheric production signal is superimposed on the climatic 10Be variations. We conclude that after “de-trending” of the climatic signal, Lake Lisan sediments may be used as an archive for atmospheric 10Be production.

The effect of Dead Sea level fluctuations on the discharge of thermal springs

Shalev, E. and Yechieli, Y. The effect of Dead Sea level fluctuations on the dis charge of thermal springs. Isr. J. Earth Sci. 56: 19–27. Thermal springs along the Dead Sea shore have been known to exist long before the great recession of the Dead Sea of the last 40 years. This work studies a possible mechanism that drives the brine discharge along the Dead Sea shore and the effect of the lake level fluctuations on the discharge. The Goldschmidt model suggested for the discharge of the springs at the Sea of Galilee cannot explain the discharge of the springs at the Dead Sea shore. Results from numerical modeling indicate that at steady state conditions the Dead Sea brine sinks through faults, migrates across tilted blocks, and then ascends back to the Dead Sea shore with fresh groundwater. The most signifi cant change in brine discharge is caused by water level changes in the lake. A recession of the Dead Sea causes a significant increase in brine spring discharge. As the Dead Sea level drops it interrupts the steady-state conditions. Since the groundwater was in equilibrium with a higher lake level, it now flows upwards to the lower lake level, reducing the overall hydraulic head. A rise of the Dead Sea level causes a decrease or even disappearance of the thermal spring discharge. An increase in the freshwater recharge in the mountain area causes negligible changes in this brine circulation.

Chemical evolution of saline waters in the Jordan-Dead Sea transform and in adjoining areas

The Ca–Mg relationship in groundwaters strongly points to the overall dolomitization and local albitization. The Mg/Ca ratios reveal two trends by which saline waters develop: increase of Mg/Ca ratio by evaporation and decreasing Mg/Ca ratios due to dolomitization and albitization. Br/Cl vs. Na/Cl ratios demonstrate that albitization does not play a major role which leaves dolomitization to be the main source for decreasing Mg/Ca ratios in saline waters. In the eastern and southern Region of Lake Kinneret, salinization occurs by mixing with a Ca/Mg molar ratio 1 dominates, which developed by the albitization of plagioclase in abundant mafic volcanics and the dolomitization of limestones. The most saline groundwater of the Tabgha-, Fuliya-, and Tiberias clusters could be regional derivatives of at least two mother brines: in diluted form one is represented by Ha’On water, the other is a Na-rich brine of the Zemah type. Additionally, a deep-seated Ca-dominant brine may ascend along the fractures on the western side of Lake Kinneret, which is absent on the eastern side. Groundwaters of the Lower Jordan Valley are chemically different on both sides of the Jordan River, indicating that the exchange of water is insignificant. All saline waters from the Dead Sea and its surroundings represent a complex mixture of brines, and precipitation and local dissolution of halite and gypsum. Many wells of the Arava/Araba Valley pump groundwater from the Upper Cretaceous limestone aquifer, the origin of the water is actually from the Lower Cretaceous Kurnub Group sandstones. Groundwater drawn from the Quaternary alluvial fill either originates from Kurnub Group sandstones (Eilat 108, Yaalon 117) or from altered limestones of the Judea Group. The origin of these waters is from floods flowing through wadis incised into calcareous formations of the Judea Group. On the other hand, as a result of step-faulting, hydraulic contact is locally established between the Kurnub- and the Judea Groups aquifers facilitating the inter-aquifer flow of the confined Kurnub paleowater into the karstic formations of the Judea Group. Two periods of Neogene brine formation are considered: the post-Messinan inland lagoon resulting in drying up of the Sdom Sea and the evaporation of the Pleistocene Samra Lake, which went further through the stage of Lake Lisan to the present Dead Sea. For the first period, major element hydrochemistry suggests that the saline waters and brines in the Jordan-Dead Sea–Arava Valley transform evolved from the gradual evaporation of an accumulating mixture of sea-, ground-, and surface water. Due to the precipitation of carbonates, gypsum, and halite, such an evaporating primary water body was strongly enriched in Mg, Br, and B and shows high molar ratios of Br/Cl, B/Cl, and Mg/Ca but low Na/Cl ratios. The development of the Br/Cl ratio is chemically modelled, showing that indeed brine development is explicable that way. Along with the evaporation brine, evaporites formed which are leached by infiltrating fresh water yielding secondary brines with Na/Cl ratios of 1. When primary brines infiltrated the sub-surface, they were subjected to Mg–Ca exchange in limestones (dolomitization) and to chloritization and albitization in basic igneous rocks turning them into Ca-Cl brines. These tertiary brines are omnipresent in the Rift. The brines of the late Lisan and Dead Sea were generated by evaporating drainage waters, which leached halite, gypsum, and carbonates from the soil and from the sub-surface. All these brines are still being flushed out by meteoric water, resulting in saline groundwaters. This flushing is regionally enhanced by intensive groundwater exploitation. In variable proportions, the Neogene and late Lisan Lake and Recent Dead Sea brines have to be considered as the most serious sources of salinization of groundwaters in the Rift. Deep-seated pre-Sdom brines cannot strictly be excluded, but if active they play a negligible role only.

Sinkhole "swarms" along the Dead Sea coast: Reflection of disturbance of lake and adjacent groundwater systems

More than a thousand sinkholes have developed along the western coast of the Dead Sea since the early 1980s, more than 75% of them since 1997, all occurring within a narrow strip 60 km long and <1 km wide. This highly dynamic sinkhole development has accelerated in recent years to a rate of ∼150–200 sinkholes per year. The sinkholes cluster mostly over specific sites up to 1000 m long and 200 m wide, which spread parallel to the general direction of the fault system associated with the Dead Sea Transform. Research employing borehole and geophysical tools reveals that the sinkhole formation results from the dissolution of an ∼10,000-yr-old salt layer buried at a depth of 20–70 m below the surface. The salt dissolution by groundwater is evidenced by direct observations in test boreholes; these observations include large cavities within the salt layer and groundwater within the confined subaquifer beneath the salt layer that is undersaturated with respect to halite. Moreover, the groundwater brine within the salt layer exhibits geochemical evidence for actual salt dissolution (Na/Cl = 0.5–0.6 compared to Na/Cl = 0.25 in the Dead Sea brine). The groundwater heads below the salt layer have the potential for upward cross-layer flow, and the water is actually invading the salt layer, apparently along cracks and active faults. The abrupt appearance of the sinkholes, and their accelerated expansion thereafter, reflects a change in the groundwater regime around the shrinking lake and the extreme solubility of halite in water. The eastward retreat of the shoreline and the declining sea level cause an eastward migration of the fresh–saline water interface. As a result the salt layer, which originally was saturated with Dead Sea water over its entire spread, is gradually being invaded by fresh groundwater at its western boundary, which mixes and displaces the original Dead Sea brine. Accordingly, the location of the western boundary of the salt layer, which dates back to the shrinkage of the former Lake Lisan and its transition to the current Dead Sea, constrains the sinkhole distribution to a narrow strip along the Dead Sea coast. The entire phenomenon can be described as a hydrological chain reaction; it starts by intensive extraction of fresh water upstream of the Dead Sea, continues with the eastward retreat of the lake shoreline, which in turn modifies the groundwater regime, finally triggering the formation of sinkholes.

Distribution and Determination of Pb, Cd, Bi and Cu in the Sea Brine System: Solution ‐ Colloidal Particles – Biota

The distribution of Pb, Cd, Bi, and Cu in Black Sea brine system (solution--colloidal particles--biota) produced in Burgas and Pomorie salterns is studied. The established distribution of the title elements among the brine components is as follows: Pb--25% in the salt solution, 30%--in colloidal particles, 45%--in biota (Halobacterium salinarium and microalgae Dunaliela salina); Cu--30% in the salt solution, 22%--in colloidal particles, 48%--in biota. Cd and Bi are not detected in biota. They are uniformly distributed (50%: 50%) between the salt solution and colloidal particles. Two procedures for analysis are developed. The first one is designed for determination of the total content of the studied metals in brine. It involves elimination of the biota interference by addition of ethanol, extraction and pre-concentration of the metals with NaDDC into CCl4 followed by FAAS determination. The second procedure intends determination of the elements in the separate components of the brine. It involves separation of the colloidal particles through centrifugation, separation of the studied elements from the resulting solution as dithiocarbamate complexes on a Millipore filter, dissolution of the retained metal species and subsequent FAAS analysis.

Two and a Half Centuries of Qualitative and Quantitative Chemical Analyses of Dead Sea Water

AbstractThe waters of the Dead Sea, with their extremely high salt concentration and unusual ionic composition, have challenged the analytical skills of the pioneers of modern chemistry in the 18th and the 19th centuries. Since the first qualitative (Perry, 1742) and quantitative analysis (Macquer, Lavoisier, and Sage, 1781) of Dead Sea brine were published, many chemical analyses of its waters have appreared in the literature. Illustrious names such as Marcet, Klaproth, Gay‐Lussac, Gmelin, Hermbstädt, and Boussingault are associated with these early analyses. Many of the analytical results, obtained with the primitive equipment available at the time, are surprisingly accuate, even by present‐day standards. Thus, the chemical composition of Dead Sea water was known long before correct maps of the lake had been published and before the geological history, the physical limnology, and the microbiology of the lake were understood.

Use of electrical resistivity methods for detecting subsurface fresh and saline water and delineating their interfacial configuration: a case study of the eastern Dead Sea coastal aquifers, Jordan

The alluvial aquifer is the primary source of groundwater along the eastern Dead Sea shoreline, Jordan. Over the last 20 years, salinity has risen in some existing wells and several new wells have encountered brackish water in areas thought to contain fresh water. A good linear correlation exists between the water resistivity and the chloride concentration of groundwater and shows that the salinity is the most important factor controlling resistivity. Two-dimensional electrical tomography (ET) integrated with geoelectrical soundings were employed to delineate different water-bearing formations and the configuration of the interface between them. The present hydrological system and the related brines and interfaces are controlled by the Dead Sea base level, presently at 410 m b.s.l. Resistivity measurements show a dominant trend of decreasing resistivity (thus increasing salinity) with depth and westward towards the Dead Sea. Accordingly, three zones with different resistivity values were detected, corresponding to three different water-bearing formations: (1) strata saturated with fresh to slightly brackish groundwater; (2) a transition zone of brine mixed with fresh to brackish groundwater; (3) a water-bearing formation containing Dead Sea brine. In addition, a low resistivity unit containing brine was detected above the 1955 Dead Sea base level, which was interpreted as having remained unflushed by infiltrating rain.

Efficient Recovery of Potassium Chloride from Liquid Effluent Generated during Preparation of Schoenite from Kainite Mixed Salt and Its Reuse in Production of Potassium Sulfate

Although bittern of oceanic origin can be utilized for the production of K2SO4 via kainite (KCl·MgSO4·2.75H2O) and schoenite (K2SO4·MgSO4·6H2O) double salts, certain limitations are encountered in practice. These include (i) difficulties in obtaining pure schoenite from crude kainite and (ii) the requirement of KCl in the K2SO4 forming process. When schoenite is prepared from kainite through a simple reaction-cum-leaching process and the liquid effluent is desulfated with CaCl2 as part of a scheme to coproduce magnesia (Ghosh et al. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0220698 A1, 2005 (Notice of Allowance); International Patent Publication No. WO 2005/063626 A1, July 14, 2005), the composition of the resultant effluent is found to be ideally positioned in the phase diagram for direct recovery of sylvinite (NaCl/KCl). The intermediate steps of carnallite crystallization and decomposition, encountered during sylvinite preparation from Dead Sea brine and desulfated oceanic bittern, are avoided as a result. In t...

Clues to Martian brines based on halogens in salts from nakhlites and MER samples

Chlorine and Br abundances in fracture‐filling secondary salts in Nakhla veins determined in this study by Synchrotron X‐ray Microprobe (Br) and Electron Microprobe (Cl) techniques compare well to the halogens determined recently by APXS instruments in soils and rock rinds at the Gusev and Meridiani sites. The salts in these Mars rocks arise from Martian brines that have undergone evaporative or freezing concentration. The halogen abundances in these salts are corrected for “dilution effect” (because of mixing with halogen‐poor phases) to obtain their “true” abundances, which seem to be close to the halogen abundances in terrestrial sea brines. Consistent with the petrographic evidence for evaporative salt deposition sequence of carbonate‐sulfate‐halite in nakhlite meteorites, Nakhla veins yield high Br (∼250 ppm) and low Cl/Br ratios (∼10–50), suggesting possible salt deposition from concentrated brines, whereas Lafayette iddingsite, with low Br (11 ppm) and high Cl/Br ratios (∼250–300), indicates salt deposition from dilute brines on Mars. The low Cl/Br ratios (∼20 to 80) in salts from Gusev and Meridiani rock rinds indicate that they presumably originate from concentrated subsurface Martian brines. The high Cl/Br ratio (∼270) in salts deposited by dilute solutions in Lafayette and Adirondack is similar to the chondritic Cl/Br ratio, which seems to characterize the dilute brines on Mars (prior to halite precipitation) including “Early Mars Waters” (Noachian or earlier). Our results seem to be consistent with the Burt‐Knauth model involving density stratification during evaporation/freezing of brine solutions in Martian regolith.

The expected impact of the “Peace Conduit” project (the Red Sea - Dead Sea pipeline) on the Dead Sea

The Dead Sea is a severely disturbed ecosystem, greatly damaged by anthropogenic intervention in its water balance. During the 20th century, the Dead Sea level dropped by more than 25 meters, and presently (2003) it is at about 416 meters below mean sea level. This negative water balance is mainly due to the diversion of water from the catchment area of the lake by Israel, Jordan and Syria. During the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development Israel and Jordan jointly announced their interest in saving the Dead Sea by constructing the “Peace Conduit” that will pipe water from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea. The inflow of seawater (or reject brine after desalinization) into the Dead Sea will have a major impact on its limnology, geochemistry and biology. During the filling stage, relatively diluted surface water will form and the rate of evaporation will therefore increase. Dilution of the surface water will most likely result in microbial blooming whose duration is not known, while the lower water layer is likely to develop reducing conditions, including bacterial sulfate reduction and presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Mixing between the calcium-rich Dead Sea brine and the sulfate-rich seawater will result in gypsum precipitation (CaSO4⋅ 2H2O). Once the target level is reached, inflow will be outbalanced by evaporation and salinity of the surface water will increase due to accumulation of seawater-salts. The water column will re-mix when the density of the surface water will equal that of the lower water column. In spite of its large volume and high salinity relative to that of the inflowing water, over the long run the composition of this unique lake will change. Before a decision is made on the planning and construction of the Conduit, it is essential that the long term evolution and characteristics of the “renewed” Dead Sea be known and anticipated changes examined. Once decided upon, the planning and construction of the Conduit should be conducted so as to minimize possible negative impacts of seawater introduction on the Dead Sea. This can only be achieved through a thorough understanding of the expected changes in the limnological physical/chemical characteristics of the Dead Sea and its unique brine.

Viable engineering options to enhance the NaCl quality from the Dead Sea in Jordan

The Dilemma of the Dead Sea is briefly addressed. The Dead Sea is a major source for the production of food grade Sodium Chloride (NaCl) through the use of traditional salt grinding, multiple washing stages and then evaporation. But there have been problems in producing industrial grade NaCl due to the high percentage of Ca +2 and Mg +2 ion concentrations. Pilot plant experiments were conducted to simulate a sodium chloride recovery from the Dead Sea brines. Viable engineering options were examined and tested. These options are classified either by adding certain chemicals such as the use of Sodium Stearate and Sodium Carbonate or implementing and modifying process conditions. The changes in operating conditions involve; reducing the particle size and changing both water type and contact time in the washing stages, adding a low 45 rpm agitator and finally investigating the appropriate water type scheme to be used in a double washing system. These changes have significant impact in enhancing NaCl recovery especially when brackish water is used. Also brine/brackish scheme is the best choice to be used in a double washing operation.

The late Quaternary limnological history of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel

The freshwater Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) and the hypersaline Dead Sea are remnant lakes, evolved from ancient water bodies that filled the tectonic depressions along the Dead Sea Transform (DST) during the Neogene–Quartenary periods. We reconstructed the limnological history (level and composition) of Lake Kinneret during the past ∼40,000 years and compared it with the history of the contemporaneous Lake Lisan from the aspect of the regional and global climate history. The lake level reconstruction was achieved through a chronological and sedimentological investigation of exposed sedimentary sections in the Kinnarot basin trenches and cores drilled at the Ohalo II archeological site. Shoreline chronology was established by radiocarbon dating of organic remains and of Melanopsis shells. The major changes in Lake Kinneret level were synchronous with those of the southern Lake Lisan. Both lakes dropped significantly ∼42,000, ∼30,000, 23,800, and 13,000 yr ago and rose ∼39,000, 26,000, 5000, and 1600 yr ago. Between 26,000 and 24,000 yr ago, the lakes merged into a unified water body and lake level achieved its maximum stand of ∼170 m below mean sea level (m bsl). Nevertheless, the fresh and saline water properties of Lake Kinneret and Lake Lisan, respectively, have been preserved throughout the 40,000 years studied. Calcium carbonate was always deposited as calcite in Lake Kinneret and as aragonite in Lake Lisan–Dead Sea, indicating that the Dead Sea brine (which supports aragonite production) never reached or affected Lake Kinneret, even during the period of lake high stand and convergence. The synchronous level fluctuation of lakes Kinneret, Lisan, and the Holocene Dead Sea is consistent with the dominance of the Atlantic–Mediterranean rain system on the catchment of the basin and the regional hydrology. The major drops in Lake Kinneret–Lisan levels coincide with the timing of cold spells in the North Atlantic that caused a shut down of rains in the East Mediterranean and the lakes drainage area.

Modeling water mass formation in the Mertz Glacier Polynya and Adélie Depression, East Antarctica

High rates of sea ice growth and brine rejection in the Mertz Glacier Polynya drive the production of dense continental shelf waters in the Adélie Depression. We consider the rate of outflow of waters having sufficient density to sink into the neighboring abyssal ocean and form Adélie Land Bottom Water (ALBW). Along with Weddell and Ross Sea Bottom Waters, the ALBW is an important source of Antarctic Bottom Water. The relevant processes are modeled using a variant of the Max Planck Institute Ocean Model (MPIOM) under daily NCEP‐NCAR reanalysis forcing for the period 1991–2000. The orthogonal curvilinear horizontal grid allows for the construction of a global domain with high resolution in our region of interest. The modeled Mertz Glacier Polynya is realistic in location and extent, exhibiting low ice thickness (&lt;0.4 m) and low ice fraction (&lt;50%). The net surface ocean to atmosphere heat flux exceeds 200 W m2 and is dominated by sensible heat exchange. In wintertime (May through September inclusive), 7.5 m of sea ice forms over the Adélie Depression at a rate of 4.9 cm d−1: this results in annual average volumetric production of 99 km3 of sea ice. The associated brine release drives dense shelf water formation. The off‐shelf flow of dense water exhibits strong interannual variability in response to variability in both atmospheric forcing and ocean preconditioning. Averaged over the period 1991–2000 the off shelf flow of dense water is 0.15 Sv: for a period of strong outflow (1993–1997), this increases to 0.24 Sv. Most of the outflow occurs during July through October, at a rate of 0.40 (0.63) Sv over the period 1991–2000 (1993–1997). The peak mean monthly outflow can exceed 1 Sv.