School Life Adjustment Research Articles

초등학생이 지각한 부모의 교육지원활동이 학교생활적응, 학업참여, 과학학습만족에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study was to examine the direct and indirect effects of parental educational support activities, school adjustment, and academic engagement variables on elementary school students' perceived satisfaction with science learning and to identify the structural relationships among the variables. To this end, 230 students in grades 4-6 at S Elementary School in a metropolitan city were surveyed to examine the causal relationships among the variables. The results showed that elementary school students' perceived parental educational support activities, school life adjustment, and academic engagement had a direct effect on science learning satisfaction, and parental educational support activities had a direct effect on school life adjustment and academic engagement. In addition, parental educational support activities had an indirect effect on science learning satisfaction through school life adjustment and academic engagement. Therefore, it is necessary to educate elementary school students from a comprehensive perspective that considers parental educational support activities, school adjustment, and academic engagement in order to foster science learning satisfaction.

Effect of parenting attitude on school life adjustment: mediating effect of self-esteem - Focusing on middle school students in N City

This study was conducted for the purpose of providing basic data for understanding emotional changes according to the development process of middle school students in counseling and education fields by verifying the mediating effect of self-esteem in the relationship between parenting attitudes and school life adjustment, focusing on middle school students. It has been done. For this purpose, a survey was conducted on 389 middle school students located in N City, and descriptive statistics, correlations, and mediation effects were analyzed using SPSS 23.0 and Model 4 of PRECESS Macro. The research results First, positive parenting attitude and school life adjustment showed a significant positive correlation, and negative parenting attitude and school life adjustment showed a significant negative correlation. Second, self-esteem showed a partial mediating effect in the effect of positive parenting attitude on school life adjustment. Third, self-esteem showed a partial mediating effect in the impact of negative parenting attitudes on school life adjustment, but caution is needed in interpretation due to low explanatory power, so groups according to self-esteem level (top 25%, middle 50%, bottom 25%), and as a result of additional analysis, it was confirmed that each group's negative parenting attitude may have different effects on school life adaptation depending on the individual's level of self-esteem. Based on the research results, limitations and suggestions for follow-up research were discussed.

고등학생의 자기효능감과 학교생활적응 간의 관계에서 인지적 유연성과 정서조절능력의 매개효과

The purpose of this study is to test the mediating effects of cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation ability on the relationship between self-efficacy and school life adjustment of high school students. For the research 300 high school students in Busan were surveyed and 261 students’ data were finally analyzed using SPSS. Correlation analysis was conducted to ascertain the relationship between each variable, and hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to verify the mediating effects of the cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation ability. Bootstrapping was used on the final to prove whether there was an indirect effect of mediation variable was meaningful. The results of this study showed that there was a significant correlation between self-efficacy, cognitive flexibility, emotional regulation and school life adjustment of high school students. Cognitive flexibility partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and school life adjustment of high school students. Emotional regulation ability partially mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and school life adjustment of high school students. Therefore it is very important for high school students to improve their cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation ability in order to increase school life adjustment. The results of this study is significant in that it provides basic information for improvement in school life adjustment of high school students.

외국인 유학생의 한국 대학축제 선택 속성, 만족도, 재방문 의도

Purpose The research purpose is to observe emerging foreign students in Korean colleges and to verify whether the college festival can function to facilitate to foreign student adjustment. Therefore, in order to allow more foreign students to participate in and be satisfied with college festival, festival selection attributes in college setting are needed, and also different perspectives on festival derived from overseas school life adjustment should be found.
 Methods Self-administered survey was conducted on Chinese students, who are account for the majority of international students, and 221 questionnaires were finally analyzed.
 Results Hypothesis 1: College festival selection attribute had partially a significant effect on the college festival satisfaction. Hypothesis 2: College festival satisfaction had a significant effect on the revisit intention. Through this findings, college festival selection attributes which required and expected by foreign students were found by linking selection attribute to satisfaction. Hypothesis 3: Different overseas school life adjustment groups had showed significantly different in college festival selection attribute, satisfaction and revisit intention. Since there are differences in festival-related behavior variables depending on the adjustment of international students' school life, clues have been prepared to understand the causal relationship between the festival and adjustment.
 Conclusion The significance of findings is that festival will be served as foreign students’ school life adjustment and deliver insight on how to prepare college festival.

지역아동센터 이용 초기 청소년이 지각한 사회적 낙인감이 학교생활적응과 우울에 미치는 영향

This study aimed to investigate the impact of social stigma perceived by early adolescents using Community Child Centers on their adaptation to school life and depression. For this purpose, a survey was conducted on 320 middle school students among youth who used local children's centers in Busan and Gyeongnam. The collected questionnaires were analyzed through correlation analysis and regression analysis using the SPSS statistical program. As a result of the analysis, first, it was found that there was a significant relationship between the independent variables and dependent variables set in this study. This means that adaptation to school life and level of depression may vary depending on the social stigma perceived by early adolescents using Community Child Centerss. Second, the sub-factors of social stigma perceived by early adolescents using Community Child Centers were found to have a significant impact on the sub-factors of school life adjustment. This is an important result that shows that in our society, a sense of social stigma exists against early adolescents who use Community Child Centers, and that awareness of this stigma has a negative impact on adolescents' adaptation to school. Third, the sub-factors of social stigma perceived by early adolescents using Community Child Centers were found to have a significant impact on depression. This indicates that social stigma has a negative effect on depression in adolescents, either directly or indirectly, and that they can be affected by social stigma to a greater extent than adults. In summary, the stigma perceived by adolescents using Community Child Centers was found to have a negative impact on their adaptation to school life and depression. Therefore, this suggests that efforts should be made to ensure that Community Child Centers, which are mainly used by poor children and adolescents, not only expand the quantity of services and programs, but also prevent social stigmatization during the service process.

The effects of a Journey of the Brave Counseling Program on anxiety, well-being, and life adjustment in Taiwanese children

The purposes of the current study are two-fold. Study 1 aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS) in a Taiwanese sample. Study 2 aimed to explore the immediate and follow-up effects of Journey of the Brave Counseling Program (JBCP) on children’s’ anxiety, well-being, and life adjustment. A review and suggestions were provided for future research and practitioners in educational and counseling fields as reference. In Study 1, the pilot study included 150 to 200 children between ages 11 and 12 in Taoyuan City. In Study 2, we conducted a pretest-posttest nonequivalent groups quasi-experimental design. The participants in this stage were 16 children in an elementary school in Taoyuan City, between ages 11 and 12. After obtaining consent forms from the participants’ guardians, we randomly assigned these participants to an experimental group (N = 8) and a control group (N = 8). The experimental group received a 40-minute JBCP session weekly for ten weeks. The control group received a 40-minute career exploration small group counseling weekly for ten weeks. We administered the SCAS, Psychological Well-Being Scale, and School Life Adjustment Scale in the pretest, posttest, and follow-up test to measure change of anxiety, well-being, and life adjustment of the participants. In addition, the current study implemented some qualitative data, such as group progress notes, group member feedback questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews with participants’ homeroom teachers as supplementary data to clarify the effects of the JBCP. In Study 1, we found that the SCAS had a good validity and reliability for Taiwanese children. The results of Study 2 indicated that the JBCP had immediate and follow-up effects on the separation anxiety in the experimental group. With the pretest impact eliminated, the immediate and follow-up effects on overall anxiety in the experimental group were better than those on the control group. However, even though the immediate and follow-up effects of the JBCP on the experimental group were better than the control group but were not significant. Besides, the group member feedback questionnaires and participants’ homeroom teachers all indicated that the experimental group participants had positive attitude toward the JBCP, and they also positively improved their emotions and interpersonal relationships with others.

대학 신입생의 학교생활적응 관련 국내 연구동향

Objectives This study aims to suggest the direction of future research by analyzing domestic research trends related to university freshman adaptation to school life.
 Methods This study was conducted from May 2022 to August 2022, and 57 domestic journals were selected and the study period, research subject, research type, data collection method, research content, and trends in related variables were analyzed.
 Results First, research related to college freshman adaptation to school life continues to increase, and the most research was conducted in 2019. Second, as for the trends by study subject, there were many studies targeting freshmen at four-year colleges. Third, in the trend by research type, quantitative research was carried out the most. Fourth, the use of questionnaire method was high in the trend by data collection method. Fifth, as for the trend by research content, the study on the relationship between related variables showed the highest at 64.9%. Sixth, in the trend by related variable, education program, academic self-efficacy, major selection motivation, and college life adaptation were used as independent variables, and career decision self-efficacy and social support were used as mediating variables. As a dependent variable, college life adaptation was mainly used.
 Conclusions This study is meaningful in that it examines domestic research trends related to school life adaptation of college freshmen and suggests directions and implications for future studies related to school life adjustment.

"다문화 청소년의 문화여가활동경험이 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향: 자아존중감의 매개효과 "

"다문화 청소년의 문화여가활동경험이 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향: 자아존중감의 매개효과 "

다문화 가정의 부모-자녀 간 개방형 의사소통이 초등학생의 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향: 문화정체감과 자기효능감의 이중매개효과

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of parent-child open communication in multicultural families on elementary school student’s school life adjustment and to confirm the dual mediating effect of cultural identity and self-efficacy. The main results of this study are as follows. First, regarding the effects of parent-child open communication on elementary school student’s school life adjustment, it was found that Korean cultural identity, mother’s cultural identity, and self-efficacy had mediating effects. Second, the dual mediating effect of Korean cultural identity and self-efficacy was found on the effect of parent-child open communication on elementary school student’s school life adjustment. Based on major findings, some academic and practical implications were presented in the conclusion section.

The Effects of Adolescents' Positive Psychological Capital on School Life Adjustment and School Happiness

본 연구는 청소년의 긍정심리자본이 학교생활적응과 학교행복감에 미치는 영향에 대한 영향을 알아보고자하였다. 이를 위해 대구․경북에 소재한 중학년 320명을 대상으로 설문조사를 실시하였고, 최종 300명을 연구대상으로 선정하였다. 수집된 자료를 분석한 결과 첫째. 청소년의 긍정심리자본과 학교생활적응, 학교행복감 간에는 통계적으로 유의미한 정적상관이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 청소년의 긍정심리자본이 학교생활적응과학교행복감에 유의미한 영향을 미치고 있는 것으로 나타났다. 특히 긍정심리자본의 하위요인 중 복원력이 상대적으로 높은 예측력을 가지는 것으로 나타나 청소년들이 스스로 실패와 고난을 이겨나가는 힘이 있을 때 학교생활적응과 학교행복감이 상승할 수 있는 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 청소년의 학교생활적응과 학교행복감을향상시키기 위해서는 주변 환경의 취약성을 보완하는 것과 더불어 긍정심리자본을 향상시키는 것이 매우 중요함을 시사한다.

중학생의 팬텀활동과 학교생활적응에 대한 잠재전이 분석

The purpose of this study is to use Korea Children and Youth Panel Survey 2018 (KCYPS 2018) data to identify latent profile types for fandom activity in the first year of middle school and school adjustment competency in the third year of middle school, and to analyze the transition patterns and predictive factors to each time point. For this purpose, latent transition analysis was conducted. Fandom activities were found to be active when academic helplessness was high or life satisfaction was low. Female students were more likely to be in the online type and male students were more likely to be in the normal type of fandom activity. It was found that the lower the academic helplessness, the higher the life satisfaction, the more positive parenting attitude, the higher the grades, the higher the likelihood of belonging to the excellent school adjustment group. In the passive type of fandom activity, based on the poor school adjustment group or the average school adjustment group, the lower the academic helplessness, the higher the possibility of transfer to the excellent school adjustment group. Through the analysis of the latent profile, it was possible to distinguish the latent classes for the middle school student fandom activities and the school life adjustment group. Individual factors, family factors, and school factors affecting school life adjustment, which were not identified in previous studies, were analyzed inclusively. It is meaningful in that it revealed that factors such as academic helplessness, life satisfaction, parenting attitudes, and academic achievement satisfaction were important in the transition of the potential profile type of fandom activities to school adjustment. Previous studies have used only KCYPS 2018 1st year data as cross- sectional data, but this study is meaningful in that it used longitudinal data including data from 3rd year to analyze metastasis.

청소년의 휴대폰의존이 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향: 자아존중감 매개효과를 중심으로

본 연구는 청소년의 휴대폰의존이 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향에서 자아존중감의 매개효과를 확인하는 것이다. 이를 위해 한국청소년정책연구원에서 진행한 2016년에 조사 완료한 아동청소년 패널 가운데 초4 패널 1,959명의 데이터를 사용하여 분석하였 다. 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 휴대폰의존도, 학교생활적응, 자아존중감 중 자아존중 감의 평균이 가장 높게 나타났고, 휴대폰 의존도, 학교생활적응 순으로 나타났다. 둘째, 청소년의 휴대전화의존도와 학교생활적응, 자아존중감의 상관관계를 살펴본 결과 휴 대폰 의존도와 학교생활적응은 부(-)적 상관관계를 보여주며, 휴대폰 의존도와 자아존 중감은 정(+)적 상관관계, 자아존중감과 학교생활적응은 부(-)적 상관관계를 보여주며 통계적으로 유의미하게 나타났다. 셋째, 청소년의 휴대폰의존도가 학교생활에 미치는 영향을 살펴본 결과 휴대폰의존 도가 높을수록 학교생활적응에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 두 변수 사이에 서 자아존중감은 매개효과가 있는 것으로 드러났다. 이에 청소년들이 긍정적인 학교생 활적응을 할 수 있도록 올바른 휴대폰사용교육 및 자아존중감 향상 프로그램의 개발과 실행을 제안한다.

고등학생의 긍정심리자본과 학교생활적응 간의 관계에서 인지적 유연성의 매개효과

Objectives The purpose of this study is to investigate the mediating effects of cognitive flexibility on the relationship between positive psychological capital and school life adjustment of high school students. Methods For the research high school students in Busan were surveyed and 227 students’ data were finally analyzed using SPSS. Correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between each variable, and hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to verify the mediating effects of the cognitive flexibility. Sobel Test was used to prove if the indirect effect of mediation variable was significant. Results First the result of this study showed that four components of positive psychological capital (self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience), cognitive flexibility, and school life adjustment of high school students had significant positive correlation. Cognitive flexibility on the relationship between four different resources of positive psychological capital and school life adjustment of high school students has been turned out to have partial mediating effects. Conclusions These results suggest the importance of psychological intervention to improve psychological capital (self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience) and cognitive flexibility that affect school life adjustment of high school students.

Mediating Effects of Major Satisfaction With Occupational Therapy on the Relationship Between Major Selection Motivation and School Life Adjustment

Mediating Effects of Major Satisfaction With Occupational Therapy on the Relationship Between Major Selection Motivation and School Life Adjustment

The Effect of Career Education Program on Self-esteem and School Life Adjustment of First-year Elementary School Students

이 연구의 목적은 ‘자아이해와 사회적 역량 개발’ 영역을 중심으로 한 진로교육 프로그램이 초등학교 1학년 학생의 자아존중감과 학교생활 적응에 미치는 영향을 분석하는 것이다. 이러한 연구 목적을 달성하기 위하여 1학년 2개 학급을 선정하여 각각 실험집단(25명)과 비교집단(25명)으로 하고, 실험집단과 비교집단의 자아존중감과 학교생활 적응의 차이는 t-검증에 의해 분석하였다. 진로교육 프로그램은 총 10차시로, 자아이해 및 긍정적 자아개념 형성 5차시, 대인관계 및 의사소통역량 개발 5차시였다. 이 연구의 결론은 다음과 같다. 첫째, ‘자아이해와 사회적 역량 개발’ 영역을 중심으로 한 진로교육 프로그램은 초등학교 1학년 학생의 자아존중감을 향상시키는데 효과가 있었다. 실험집단과 비교집단의 사후 검사에서 실험 집단의 평균이 높아 유의미한 차이가 있음을 알 수 있다. 하위요인에서는 학생으로서의 자신에 대한 평가인 학문적 자아존중감이 향상된 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, ‘자아이해와 사회적 역량 개발’ 영역을 중심으로 한 진로교육 프로그램은 초등학교 1학년 학생의 학교생활 적응을 향상시키는데 긍정적인 영향을 미치지 않았다. 이는 코로나바이러스감염증-19로 인한 교실에서의 거리두기, 협동 학습과 놀이 시간의 부재 등 학교생활 환경의 변화 때문으로 여겨진다. 반면, 하위요인에서는 교사와의 관계에 대한 적응이 향상되었다. 이 연구에서의 실험 처지는 전면 대면 수업으로 진행되었다. 그러나 코로나바이러스감염증-19 상황으로 교사 및 친구와의 관계나 학교 규칙 적응 등 학교생활의 적응에는 한계가 있었음을 짐작할 수 있다. 따라서 코로나바이러스감염증-19 이전과 같은 대면 수업 상황에서 진로교육 프로그램을 실행하여 그 효과를 검정하는 후속 연구가 필요하다.

The Relationship between Media Sports Involvement Experience, Exercise Flow and School Life Adjustment of Male Adolescents

목적 이 연구는 남자 청소년의 미디어스포츠 관여경험이 운동몰입 및 학교생활적응에 미치는 영향을 분석함으로써 간접적 스포츠 참여에 따른 올바른 운동몰입을 함양하도록 하여, 건강한 학교생활적응 뿐 아니라 사회생활에도 활력을 불어넣어 줌으로써 건전하고 건강한 학교생활 문화 및 원만한 인간관계 문화를 형성하는데 그 목적이 있다. 방법 이를 위해 2021년 C도에 거주하고 있는 남자 청소년을 대상으로 편의표본추출법을 이용해서 360명의 표본을 추출하여, 연구 목적에 적합한 351명의 유효 표본을 확보하여 자료를 분석하였다. 설문지는 확인적 요인분석을 실시하여 타당성을 확보였으며, 자료분석은 구조방정식 모형분석을 실시하였다. 주요 연구 결과는 다음과 같다. 결과 첫째, 미디어스포츠 관여경험은 운동몰입에 직접적인 영향을 미치며, 학교생활적응에는 직접적인 영향을 미치지 않는다. 둘째, 운동몰입은 학교생활만족에 직접적인 영향을 미친다. 셋째, 운동몰입은 미디어스포츠 관여경험과 학교생활적응 사이에서 완전 매개역할을 한다. 결론 연구결과를 토대로 남학생 청소년들은 미디어를 통해 스포츠를 간접적으로 접하면서 운동시 몰입감을 가져오며, 운동의 몰입은 학생들로 하여금 학교생활을 적응 하는데 많은 도움을 주고 있다.

The Effect of Parental Empathy on Adolescents’ School-Life Adjustment: Mediating Effect of Self-Concept Clarity and Cognitive Flexibility

목적 본 연구는 부모공감과 청소년의 학교생활적응과의 관계에서 자기개념명확성과 인지적유연성의 매개효과를 검증하고자 하는데 그 목적이 있다. 방법 이를 위해 서울에 위치한 2개 중학교에 재학 중인 학생 707명을 대상으로 부모공감 척도, 자기개념명확성 척도, 인지적유연성 척도, 학교생활적응 척도를 사용한 자기보고식 설문조사를 실시하여 결과를 분석하였다. 특히 본 연구는 부모공감의 하위요인 중 공감적정서반응과 과민정서반응을 독립변인으로 설정하고, 자기개념명확성 및 인지적유연성의 하위요인인 대안과 통제를 각각 별개의 매개변인으로 설정하여 연구를 진행하였다. 수집된 자료는 SPSS 24.0과 AMOS 21.0 프로그램을 사용하여 구조방정식모형(Structural Equation Model : SEM)으로 분석하였다. 결과 본 연구에 대한 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 공감적정서반응 및 과민정서반응과 자기개념명확성, 인지적유연성 대안 및 통제, 학교생활적응 간에 유의미한 상관관계가 나타났다. 둘째, 부모의 공감적정서반응과 자녀의 학교생활적응과의 관계에서 자기개념명확성의 단일매개효과는 나타나지 않았으나, 인지적유연성 대안의 단일매개효과는 나타났으며, 자기개념명확성 및 인지적유연성 대안의 이중매개효과도 나타났다. 셋째, 부모의 과민정서반응과 자녀의 학교생활적응과의 관계에서 자기개념명확성의 단일매개효과와 인지적유연성 대안의 단일매개효과는 나타나지 않았고, 자기개념명확성 및 인지적유연성 대안의 이중매개효과도 나타나지 않았다. 넷째, 부모의 공감적정서반응과 자녀의 학교생활적응과의 관계에서 인지적유연성 통제의 단일매개효과와 자기개념명확성 및 인지적유연성 통제의 이중매개효과가 나타났다. 다섯째, 부모의 과민정서반응과 자녀의 학교생활적응과의 관계에서 인지적유연성 통제의 단일매개효과와 자기개념명확성 및 인지적유연성 통제의 이중매개효과도 나타났다. 결론 본 연구의 결과는 학교생활적응에 어려움을 호소하는 청소년기 학생들에게는 그 해결 방안을 모색할 자료가 될 수 있을 것이며, 자녀의 학교생활적응으로 고민하고 있는 부모에게는 자녀에 대한 이해의 폭을 넓히고 문제 상황을 새로운 관점으로 바라볼 수 있도록 하는데 도움을 줄 수 있을 것이다. 이것은 부모 스스로가 자녀에 대한 자신의 정서반응을 인지할 수 있도록 체계적인 부모교육을 진행할 필요가 있으며, 학생 개인의 인지적유연성 대안과 인지적유연성 통제 능력을 함양하고 확장시킬 수 있는 실용적인 프로그램의 개발이 필요함을 시사한다.

The Psychosocial Effects of Taekwondo Training: A Meta-Analysis.

Taekwondo is a Korean martial art and international sport, and its psychosocial benefits for its trainees have been studied extensively. This review aims to systematically assess and meta-analyze the effects of Taekwondo training on sociality, character, etiquette, and school life adjustment. We searched the RISS, NDSL, and KISS electronic databases between January 1985 and December 2019. We also included gray literature, such as theses, in addition to peer-reviewed articles. R software (version 3.6.2, R Core Team, Vienna, Austria) was used to synthesize the effect sizes and perform moderation analyses. Twenty-eight studies (24 cross-sectional and four intervention studies) were included in the final meta-analysis. Significant positive effects of Taekwondo training were found on sociality (MD = 0.266, 95% CI: 0.191 to 0.341), character (MD = 0.446, 95% CI: 0.331–0.560), etiquette (MD = 0.562, 95% CI: 0.500–0.624), and school life adjustment (MD = 0.308, 95% CI: 0.195–0.421). Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis support that Taekwondo can have a positive impact on the psychosocial factors of trainees. Due to several limitations discussed, well-designed RCTs and multiple levels of Taekwondo intervention studies should be conducted in future research to validate the current findings.

A Structural Relationship among Calling, Grit, Living a Calling and School Life Adjustment in ROK AFA Cadets.

A Structural Relationship among Calling, Grit, Living a Calling and School Life Adjustment in ROK AFA Cadets.

이혼가정 아동의 상담 및 심리치료 효과에 대한 메타분석

This research is a Meta-analysis of 25 researches which studied the divorced-family children, published during 2010∼2019, using CMA3 program. My meta-analysis tried to find (1) if the psycho-therapeutical intervention programs for the divorced-family children have some effects generally, (2) which programs (independent variables) have the biggest effects, (3) to which aspects of the adjustment (dependent variables) those programs have the biggest effects, (4) how the effects vary according to the method of program operation (mediating variables). The results are: (1) the programs for the divorced-family children have some effects generally but the effects are not so big (0.24 effects sizes), (2) Dance Movement Therapy and Solution-Centered-Short-Term Therapy have the biggest effects but Rational-Emotive-Behavior Therapy(REBT) and Bibliotherapy have the smallest effects, (3) Those programs have the biggest effects in the domain (aspect) of School LIfe Adjustment, and have the small effects in the domain(aspect) of Behavior Adjustment and Psycho-Social Adjustment. (4) (Concerning the program operation, especially levels of school) at the high school level and the elementary school level, intervention programs were effective in some degree, however at the middle school level, intervention programs produced almost no effects.