Salinity Hazard Research Articles

A Methodological Approach for Assessing Soil Salinity Hazard in Irrigated Areas. Case Study: The rut Irrigation District, Colombia

A methodology towards assessing soil salinity hazard at irrigated areas of Colombia was developed based on both electrical conductivity and solubility of salts in water. First, irrigated areas were identified; and then, their physicochemical parameters were determined for characterizing electrical conductivity of water (ECw) as well as predicting salt contents in water by employing the Solsariego model. Afterwards, levels of salinity hazard were assessed by matching classes of ECw and solubility of salts in water. Finally, the salinity hazard was mapped for each irrigated zone. As a major conclusion, we consider that the methodological approach based on water quality assessment (ECw, salt contents, and their solubility in the irrigated water) allowed to prioritize hazard level. Hence, we can address activities for managing the soil salinity in the case study.

Deciphering Groundwater Quality for Drinking and Irrigation Purposes – A Study in Lefunga Block of West Tripura District, Tripura, India

The aim of the present study is to assess the groundwater quality of Lefunga block, west Tripura district, Tripura, for irrigation and domestic purposes. Nine samples were collected from bore wells used for drinking and irrigation purposes. The water samples were analyzed for major cations like calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and anions like chloride, bi-carbonate and sulfate. Samples were also analyzed for arsenic and fluoride concentration. The important constituents that influences water quality for irrigation such as Electrical conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP) and Permeability Index (PI) were determined and compared with standard limits. The values of TDS range from 29.33 – 86.00 mg/L, SAR values range from 0.04 – 0.07, MAR values range from 33.56 – 53.68 and SSP range from 3.01 – 5.87. Results show that they all lie within the safe limits and thus largely suitable for irrigation purpose. Hence, the groundwater of this area is free from salinity hazard and has no adverse effect on soil properties. Furthermore, the water samples also fall within recommended limits and are found suitable for drinking purposes except one sample having high levels of iron and thus rendering it to be very poor for drinking purposes as per WQI classification.

Assessment of Soil Fertility Status under Different Cropping Sequences in District Kapurthala

The present study was undertaken to assess the fertility status of soil put under various cropping sequences followed in different villages of different blocks in the district. Seven villages namely Bhagwanpur, Bhetan, Boolpur, Kheeranwali, Khukrain, Meripur and Swal, falling under three blocks namely Dhilwan, Kapurthala and Sultanpur were selected. The soil samples were taken from 0–15 cm depth with the help of auger after the harvesting of the rabi crops during 2014–15, using the GPS locations. The pH values of soils in all the villages varied from neutral to strongly alkaline (6.79 to 9.87). The pH of all the soil samples of Bhagwanpur and Bhetan villages was neutral to slightly alkaline in nature ( 9.3) followed by Kheeranwali village (15%). The salinity hazard does not exist in village Bhagwanpur, Meripur and Bhetan, however, 42 and 36 per cent samples in village Khukrain and Boolpur showed higher salinity level, respectively. The mean value of EC in Boolpur was 0.76ds/m with a range varying from 0.3 to 1.9ds/m. It was found that organic carbon (OC) status of majority of samples ranged between low to medium. In light textured soils, 54 per cent of samples of Bhetan were found to contain low OC content whereas the soils of Boolpur were found to be rich in OC ranging from 0.32 to 1.07 per cent with mean value of 0.64 per cent and only 12 per cent of samples were under low OC category. The mean values of available phosphorus were 16.7 to 24.2 kg/ha in soil samples of all the villages. The high status of available potassium was found in Khukrain village (92%) followed by Bhagwanpur (72%), Kheeranwali (55%), Swal and Bhetan (45%) and Boolpur (44%). It was interested to note that highest available phosphorus content was found in the soil under potato based cropping sequence due to excessive phosphatic fertilizers application as compared to recommendations of research institutes. However, contrast trends were obtained in case of available potassium status because uptake of potassium was low in paddy-wheat cropping sequence as compared to vegetable and potato based cropping sequence. The OC and available phosphorus exhibited a positive correlation with cropping intensity due to application of higher inorganic fertilizers and incorporation of plant biomass as compared to paddywheat cropping sequence. On the other hand, pH, EC and available potassium showed a decreasing trend with the increased crop intensity from paddy-wheat to paddy-potato/vegetable-summer crop.

Assessment of Drinking and Irrigation Water Quality of Surface Water Resources of South-West Kashmir, India

Surface water samples have been collected from various streams of SW Kashmir and analyzed for major ions and trace elements to determine the mechanisms controlling the surface water chemistry and suitability of water for drinking, domestic and irrigation purposes. The order of cations is Ca > Mg > Na > K and anions is HCO3 > Cl > SO4 > NO3. As per the Gibb’s diagram, the major ion chemistry of surface water is controlled by rock-water interaction. The evolution of surface water into Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type of Piper trilinear plot is due to easy dissolution of carbonate minerals and less time for water-rock interaction. Surface water samples are characterized by one main trend of Ca-Mg-HCO3 i.e., carbonate dissolution of Langelier-Ludwig diagram. The major ions and trace elements in the water samples are well below the standards prescribed by WHO and BIS for drinking purposes. Based on EC and TDS classification, the water is fresh, good for irrigation and desirable for drinking purposes. The water samples fall between soft to hard categories of hardness classification with 16.66% belonging to soft, 50% to moderately hard and 33.33% to hard categories. The suitability of water for irrigation was evaluated based on the quality parameters and plots of water like Magnesium Content, Sodium Percent, Wilcox diagram, US Salinity hazard plot and Doneen’s plot. According to the values of these parameters the surface water of the study area was found suitable for irrigation and the water can be used for irrigating most of the crops and majority of the soils.

Assessment of groundwater suitability for irrigation in Madinah City, Saudi Arabia

In this study, the suitability of groundwater for irrigation purposes in Madinah city, Saudi Arabia was assessed. Of the 23 wells that were drilled in different locations of the city, 20 wells were sampled for water quality analyses. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classification of irrigation water that is based on sodium hazard (SAR) and salinity hazard was used for irrigation suitability assessment. In addition, the residual sodium carbonate (RSC) and soluble sodium percentage (%Na) were calculated for all samples and also used for irrigation suitability assessment. Results showed that all groundwater samples are in the acceptable quality range for irrigation based on RSC values, and the majority of the samples had %Na in the acceptable range for irrigation. When SAR and salinity hazard were assessed, results showed that while almost all groundwater samples fell in the acceptable range of SAR, they were either in the high or very high salinity zones, indicating that the water can be used for irrigation after adopting some management practices. Comparing total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration obtained 35 years ago for the study area with the current TDS values indicates that the recent accelerated urban development in the study area did not significantly impact groundwater quality with regard to irrigation suitability.

Hydrochemical appraisal of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and the major influencing factors: a case study in and around Hua County, China

Groundwater is the major source of water for drinking and irrigation purposes in and around Hua County, China. However, long-term industrial effluents in the upstream of the area have produced contamination to groundwater. To provide a clear and better understanding of the status and extent of groundwater pollution to local decision makers, groundwater quality was assessed for drinking and irrigation purposes in this study using sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), soluble sodium percentage (%Na), permeability index (PI), an entropy weighted water quality index (EWQI), and some graphical approaches such as Wilcox and US Salinity Laboratory (USSL) diagrams. Factors that have significant influences on the hydrochemistry and quality of groundwater were also discussed in detail. Finally, some measures for the protection and management of groundwater in the study area were provided to local decision makers. The results show that shallow groundwater in and around the Hua County is mainly slightly alkaline freshwater with the majority of the samples falling in the category of HCO3–Ca and mixed HCO3·SO4–Ca·Mg. Medium quality water is prevalent in the study area for drinking purpose, and the main contaminants in groundwater are total dissolved solid (TDS), total hardness (TH), SO4 2−, Cl−, NO3 −, NO2 −, and oil. Groundwater in the study area is suitable for agricultural irrigation with regard to sodium hazard, but mixing of low and high salinity water is recommended before irrigation to reduce the salinity hazard in local areas. Natural processes such as weathering of parent rocks, cation exchange, and groundwater evaporation are the dominant factors influencing groundwater chemistry in the study area. However, river water leakage and human interference are becoming increasingly important in altering natural groundwater chemistry. The recommendations suggest in this study may help to prevent further groundwater pollution in the study area, and the results and recommendations reported here will also be useful for many other regions facing similar problems.

Geochemical Analysis of Groundwater Samples in the Vicinity of Lakes and Drainage Network

Abstract Geochemical analysis of ground water samples in the vicinity of lakes and drainage network were carried out in and around a selected set of polluted lakes in the city of Hyderabad, India for possible restoration of the polluted lakes from the state of eutrophication. The results reveal, in general the concentration of TDS and major ions higher in the down stream areas due to shallow water table as well as seepage from lakes and nalas. Further, the concentration of trace elements in ground water was found to be within the permissible limits. The Piper and Wilcox diagrams indicate that the ground water in the study area has low sodium and high salinity hazard.

Characterization of agro-well water in Malwathu Oya cascade-I in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka

Malwathu Oya cascade is one of the largest and intensively cultivated small tank cascade systems in Anuradhapura district of Sri Lanka. Agro-wells are the most valuable resource for many farmers in this cascade area as these shallow dug wells have a good potential to sustain crop production during the dry season. However, deterioration of groundwater quality during the dry period has been reported in many parts of the dry zone. Therefore, this study focused on the characterization of agro-well water for its suitability for irrigation in the Malwathu Oya cascade based on its quality and availability. Groundwater samples were collected during March to September 2012 to cover the dry period during which the water quality deterioration has been reported in the dry zone. Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH, concentrations of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium, and depth of groundwater were measured from 20 selected agro-wells. The residual sodium carbonate (RSC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and sodium percentage (Na %) were calculated using the measured parameters. Based on the depth of groundwater available at the end of dry season, 35%, 25%, 25% and 15% of the wells recorded low, moderate, high and very high groundwater potential, respectively. The EC data showed that 35%, 55% and 10% of the wells had good, doubtful and unsuitable quality of irrigation water, respectively. According to SAR and RSC, all the wells had water good for irrigation. Based on the percentage sodium, 10% of the wells had excellent, 60% had good, 25% had permissible and 5% had doubtful quality irrigation water. According to the US salinity hazard diagram 40% of wells had medium salinity and low sodium hazard. Fifty percent of the samples had high salinity and low sodium hazard while 10 % of the samples had very high salinity and medium sodium hazard. Based on the water quality parameters measured, 25%, 15%, 50% and 10% of the wells in Malwathu Oya cascade fall into good, permissible, doubtful and unsuitable category for irrigation, respectively. Tropical Agricultural Research Vol. 25 (1): 46-55 (2013)

An Assessment of Winery Wastewater Diluted for Irrigation of Grapevines in the Breede River Valley with Respect to Water Quality and Nutrient Load

Possible re-use of winery wastewater for irrigation was investigated in a field trial with micro-sprinklerirrigated Cabernet Sauvignon/99 Richter in the Breede River Valley region of South Africa. Irrigation with winery wastewater diluted to 100, 250, 500, 1 000, 1 500, 2 000, 2 500 and 3 000 mg/L chemical oxygen demand (COD), respectively, was compared to irrigation with raw river water. Since the pH was lower than 6, the diluted wastewater could cause nutrient toxicity. The diluted winery wastewater did not pose any salinity hazard, as the electrical conductivity was well below 2 dS/m. For the given range of dilutions, the sodium adsorption ratio never exceeded 10, which indicates that the water posed no sodicity hazard. Sodium and Cl- never exceeded 115 and 150 mg/L, the respective upper thresholds for grapevines. With the exception of N, levels of H2PO4 -, K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3 -, SO4 2- and B3+ in the diluted wastewater increased with a decrease in dilution level. The N load in diluted winery wastewater appeared to be completely inadequate to supply the grapevine’s requirements. In contrast, the P load in the winery wastewater diluted to 2 500 mg/L COD and higher would supply more than adequate P if the grape yield amounts to 10 t/ha. Likewise, the dilution of winery wastewater to 250 mg/L COD and higher would supply more than adequate K+ if the grape yield amounts to 10 t/ha. However, K+ applied via the wastewater will only be beneficial if it is not leached from the root zone during winter.

Physico-Chemical Contamination of Groundwater in and Around Industrial Areas of District Alwar, Rajasthan

Chemical behaviors of groundwater in various locations are one of the most dynamic fields of research in the present world. In the present study, groundwater sampling from four industrial areas viz. Matsya Nagar, Bhiwadi, Neemrana and Behror was conducted with an aim to assess the groundwater chemistry and the interpretation of the ‘water type’ was made using Hill-Piper and Wilcox diagrams. The chemical quality was assessed by examining the major cations, anions and other parameters like sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate and sodium percent. The groundwater chemistry was then assessed and factors affecting the area were identified. It was resulted that the groundwater quality of the area was influenced by industrial and human activities which cause pollution in the aquifer system and the data supported the pollution level in the area. Majority of the samples were behaved in more or less same way. The TDS were found in average range of 1000 mg/l, while total hardness ranged the average value of 400 mg/l. Carbonate alkalinity was found in all the water samples and the average pH value were observed 8.60. In some locations, up to 337 mg/l nitrate indicates the nitrogenous contamination in the area. Fluoride was found within the prescribed limits as per BIS (Indian Drinking Water Standard, IS: 10500, 1991) norms, except one significant location at Majri Kalan in Neemrana industrial area has high fluoride as 13.0 mg/l. The interpretation of the ‘water type’ was made using Hill-Piper and Wilcox diagrams. The prominent type was Na/Mg-HCO3 and Na/Mg-Cl type of water. However, a slight variation was observed in the Na-HCO3 type of water. Sodium (alkali) hazard were observed from low (S1) to high (S3) and salinity hazard is high (C3) to very high (C4).

Surface water characteristics in the vicinity of lakes and drainage network

The quality analysis of surface water from a selected set of six lakes has been carried out for major ionic as well as trace elements for three different periods. The surface water quality is within the permissible limits. Furthermore, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) tests signify a relative oxygen-depletion effect and are known as a measure of pollution effect. Bimonthly variations of BOD and COD indicate high concentration in water samples and are given as bar charts. The concentration of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphate (TP) expressed in terms of trophic status index (TSI) is a measure of water column productivity to assess water lake quality. High concentrations of BOD, COD, TN, and TP may be attributed to the urban sewage. The TSI based on TN and TP concentration of lake water and sediment samples indicate that all the six studied lakes are under hyper eutrophic condition. Classification of surface water by Piper and Wilcox diagrams indicates a high sodium and salinity hazard.

Assessment of Impacts of Artisanal andSmall-Scale Mining Activities onGroundwater Quality of Ijero-Ekiti, South-Western Nigeria

This study focused on assessment of possible impacts of artisanal and small scale mining activities on groundwater in Ijero-Ekiti. Thirty groundwater samples (2 from the mining pits, 5 in the vicinity of the mining pits and the remaining 23 randomly selected from other parts of the study area) were collected and analysed for the anions and cations using Ion Chromatography and Atomic Absorption Mass Spectrometer methods respectively. Physical parameters (Temp.°C, pH, ECμS/cm) were measured in-situ using a Multi-parameter TestrTm 35 series Meter. The average values of pH (8.36), EC (371.40μS/cm) and average ionic concentrations in mg/L {Ca2+ (18.21), Mg2+(7.45), Na+(43.10), K+(28.56), HCO3 -(20.15), SO4 2-(8.41), Cl-(256.34) and NO3 -(0.38)} for the samples (7) from the mining pits and their vicinity showed no significant difference from the average concentrations of groundwater samples from the remaining 23 samples randomly selected from other parts of the study area except that more solutes were introduced into the groundwater system as residence time and length of transportation increase. The 23 samples have average values of pH (8.41), EC (558.91μS/cm) and average ionic concentrations in mg/L {Ca2+ (53.94), Mg2+ (20.49), Na+(45.79), K+(64.98) HCO3 -(29.62), SO4 2-(13.82), Cl-(304.63) and NO3 -(0.38)}. Increase in solute input into the groundwater system as shown by the 23 samples from other parts of the study area might equally arise from lithological variations. The order of cations concentration in the study area is Ca2+ >Na > K+ > Mg2+ while that of anions is Cl-> HCO3 -> SO4 2-> NO3 -. All ions concentrations are within WHO standard for drinking water quality except chloride that exceeded it in few locations due to local anthropogenic contamination. The Piper trilinear diagram indicated Ca–(Mg)- Cl-(SO4) and Na-(K)-Cl-(SO4 as the dominant water. All water samples have low sodium hazard as well as low– medium salinity hazard while all irrigation indices (sodium absorption ratio, residual sodium bicarbonate and Kelly ratio) showed that the groundwater is suitable for irrigation. This study revealed that the groundwater of Ijero is low mineralized, chemically potable and suitable for irrigation while artisanal and small-scale mining activities have no significant impact on the groundwater.

Characterization of Winery Wastewater for Reuse in California

More than thirty percent of the United States is currently in a drought that is expected to have profound social, economic, and environmental impacts. The intensification of drought conditions in southern and western regions of the country has spurred interest in wastewater reuse in agriculture, including in wine production. Presented here is the first data set of its kind to support California growers and vintners in the reuse of treated winery wastewater (WWW). The data provide a detailed description of California WWW, with particular emphasis on salinity, to enable the benefits and risks of land application to be assessed. Monthly samples were obtained over a 20-month period from 18 wineries in Ukiah, Napa, Lodi, King City, and Paso Robles. Samples collected before and after physicochemical and biological treatment were analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), cation and anion concentrations, specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA₂₅₄), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and biological oxygen demand (BOD₅). The pH of the WWW varied widely (from 3 to 12). Organic parameters (SUVA₂₅₄, DOC, and BOD₅) showed that treatment effectively decreased organic carbon to levels that would not have negative effects on plant growth or soil. Cation concentrations (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) in WWW were not reduced by treatment. These baseline data confirm that dissolved salts pose a challenge to the reuse of WWW. However, total salinity of the WWW was moderate (mean EC of 1.0 dS/m) and usually below risk thresholds for common winegrape rootstocks and soil salinity hazards. The conditions under which WWW could be recommended as a water management option in California are described.

Assessment of groundwater quality using GIS and CCME WQI techniques: a case study of Thiruthuraipoondi city in Cauvery deltaic region, Tamil Nadu, India

This research evaluated the groundwater quality of Thiruthuraipoondi city in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, India during summer and monsoon seasons in 2011. Eighteen groundwater samples were collected throughout Thiruthuraipoondi city and its surroundings. This case study represented that the combined analysis of ordinary kriging and CCME WQI in GIS was effective to evaluate the groundwater pollution sources, as well as for the spatial interpolation and assessment of groundwater quality. Groundwater samples evaluated by CCME WQI values belonged to good quality sectors in summer and monsoon, but to poor quality sectors at small patches of south and southeast directions in both seasons. Moreover, the higher concentration of Na and Cl was designated as irrigation waste and also seawater incursion. Based on the Piper plot, most of groundwater samples belong to Ca–Mg–Cl2 type and followed by Ca–Cl2 and Na–Cl types in summer season. In case of monsoon season, most of the groundwater samples dropped in Na–Cl type and followed by Ca–Mg–Cl2 and Ca–Cl2 water types. In Wilcox diagram, most of groundwater samples in both seasons occupied S2 and C4 categories of medium sodium hazard and very high salinity hazard, respectively. This research represented that higher concentration Na and Cl resulted from anthropogenic activities and seawater incursion due to overpumping of groundwater. An effective groundwater management plan of artificial recharge is necessary to conserve valuable groundwater resources in Thiruthuraipoondi city.

Hydrochemical mapping of the Upper Thal Doab (Pakistan) using the geographic information system

The geographic information system (GIS) has become a widely accepted tool in all fields of life and particularly in groundwater exploration and hydrogeological investigations. Especially, the application of GIS in conjunction with hydrochemical analysis and environmental isotopic study provides an excellent tool for hydrochemical mapping and a better understanding of the quality of groundwater. A GIS-based hydrochemical study was conducted in the part of Upper Thal Doab (Pakistan). Groundwater samples were analyzed for major cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+), anions (HCO3−, Cl− and SO42−), stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) and radioactive isotopes (3H) to evaluate the groundwater quality, surface water/groundwater interaction and groundwater residence time. Based on these analyses, different irrigation indices such as SSP, SAR, MAR, KI and PI were calculated for further classification of the groundwater. Thematic maps using GIS were thus developed for depicting their spatial distribution and evaluating the overall trend and better understanding of the quality of groundwater. Based on these interpretative results, it is observed that different water types of groundwater exist in the Upper Thal Doab, most of which belong to either Na–Cl or K–HCO3 water types. Other predominant hydrogeochemical facies are Na–SO4, K–SO4, Mg–Cl, K–Cl, Na–HCO3, Mg–HCO3 and Mg–SO4. Most of the samples indicate medium to very high salinity hazard based on various indices such as TDS, EC, MH, SSP and KR at some places. However, groundwater from TH-27, TH-32, TH-36, TH-38, TH-43 and TH-47 are unsuitable for irrigation purposes. The environmentally stable isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) and radioactive isotopes (3H) from selected wells are used to assess the groundwater recharge mechanism and groundwater age, respectively. This study showed that the groundwater in the study area was recharged mainly by rainfall and the Indus Basin irrigation system. Furthermore, younger waters are available along the rivers Indus and Chenab up to greater depths and large areal extents.

Salinity hazard and risk mapping of point source salinisation using proximally sensed electromagnetic instruments

In many irrigated areas in the Murray–Darling Basin, New South Wales, Australia, point-source salinisation has occurred in isolated cases. In the lower Macquarie valley, near Trangie and Warren, the cause appears to be the mobilisation of salts from perched water tables and as a function of excessive deep drainage from water storages and conveyance channels. In order to understand these hazard factors and understand the risk of further salinisation, the spatial distribution of the various factors need to be mapped. Two methods have previously been employed and include the use of GIS hazard layer (e.g. geology, topography) analysis or airborne electromagnetic (EM) mapping. The former uses qualitative data which is often unreliable, whilst the latter has large start-up costs. In this study, various sources of proximally sensed data (i.e., EM38, EM34) are first used to develop stepwise-multiple linear regression (MLR) models to map the spatial distribution of vadose-zone (0–7m) clay and salt stores. Using a salt-water balance model (SaLF), deep drainage (mm/year) is estimated. The model has an exponential form and uses ancillary data as predictors. The predicted clay, salt store and deep drainage hazard maps are further employed to develop a map of overall salinity risk using Boolean logic and indicator kriging. Results suggest that the areas exhibiting the largest conditional probability of salinity risk correspond to permeable soil types associated with the Trangie Cowal, Contemporary Macquarie and Backplain of Old Alluvium Pedoderm. It was also noted that the predicted salinity risk was consistent with where salinisation had occurred in both Trangie and Warren districts. The methodology indicated where a more strategic approach needs to be implemented when considering options to improve irrigation efficiencies and water delivery southeast of Warren and Trangie. It also showed where more detailed investigations could be undertaken to better understand the stratigraphic nature of the landscape and the mobilisation of the salts therein.

Effects of seasonal change and seawater intrusion on water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes, in coastal aquifers of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Groundwater is the major source to meet domestic, industrial and agricultural needs in the city of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. However, population growth, increasing urbanization, industrialization and tourism, and climatic changes have caused an intensive exploitation of groundwater resources leading the aquifers become more vulnerable to seawater intrusion. The aim of this study is to examine the variations of groundwater chemistry (as resulting from natural and anthropogenic inputs) depending on seasonal changes, in order to evaluate water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes. Physical and chemical data come from the analysis of groundwater samples, collected from 72 wells, used for the evaluation of water quality parameters, during a year of monitoring. Pattern diagrams, geochemical modeling techniques and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) have been used to identify the main factors influencing groundwater composition. Based on the hydrochemistry, the groundwater was classified into three types: (a) Na–Cl, (b) Ca–Cl, (c) mixed Ca–Na–HCO3–Cl (d) mixed Ca–Mg–Cl–SO4. The geochemical modeling results show that groundwater chemistry is mainly influenced by evaporation process, as it is suggested by the increase of Na and Cl ions concentrations. According to irrigation water quality assessment diagrams of USDA, most water samples from dry and rainy seasons, distributed in category C2–S1, C3–S1, C3–S2, C4–S2 highlighting medium to very high salinity hazard and low to medium sodium content class. PCA evidenced the role of seawater intrusion, evaporation process and anthropogenic pollution (i.e. high NO3 levels due to agricultural activities), as the major factors that influenced the water chemistry, and hence the water quality. Based on Pearson correlation matrix, the presence of high correlations (>0.8) among Na, Cl, Mg and SO4, in association with EC, were interpreted as the seawater intrusion effects. In this area groundwater quality is generally low, and often exceeds permissible limits of standard guideline values of WHO and FAO, referred to EC and chloride values. The high salinity and the groundwater level depletion create serious problems for current use of water supplies as well as future exploitation.

Evaluation of groundwater quality and assessment of scaling potential and corrosiveness of water samples in Kadkan aquifer, Khorasan-e-Razavi Province, Iran.

The chemical analysis of 129 groundwater samples in the Kadkan area, Khorasan-e-Razavi Province, NE of Iran was evaluated to determine the hydrochemical processes, assessment of groundwater quality for irrigation purposes, corrosiveness, and scaling potential of the groundwater. Accordingly, the suitability of groundwater for irrigation was evaluated based on the sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, sodium percent, salinity hazard, and US Salinity Laboratory hazard diagram. Based on the electrical conductivity and sodium adsorption ratio, the dominant classes are C3-S1, C3-S2, C2-S1, and C4-S2. According to the Wilcox plot, about 50 % of the samples fall in the "Excellent to Good" and "Good to Permissible" classes. Besides, the Langelier saturation index, Ryznar stability index (RSI), Larson-Skold index, and Puckorius scaling index were evaluated for assessing the corrosiveness and scaling potential of the groundwater. Corrosiveness and scaling indices stated that the majority of samples are classified into "Aggressive" and "Very Aggressive" category. In addition, chloride and sulfate interfere in 90 % of the samples. Assessment of hydrochemical characteristics indicates Na-Mg-Cl as the predominant hydrochemical type. Spatial distribution of hydrochemical parameters indicates that hydrochemical processes are influenced by geology and hydrogeology of Kadkan aquifer. The Gibbs plots gave an indication that groundwater chemistry in this area may have acquired the chemistry mainly from evaporation and mineral precipitation. Grouping the samples based on Q-mode hierarchical cluster analysis helped to more separation of similar samples. The R-mode HCA grouped analyzed parameters into two groups based on similarity of hydrochemical characteristics. As a result, the samples collected in northern and southern parts of the study area show the best quality (i.e., lowest salinity) for some purposes such as irrigation and drinking.

Water Quality of Fox Sagar Lake, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India, Its Suitability for Irrigation Purpose

Water quality indices provide a simple and understandable tool for managers on the quality and possible uses for irrigation water, however an individual quality factor alone is not enough to evaluate the irrigation water quality because it could be restrictive and sometimes it could give an unfavorable qualification. The aim of this paper is to assess water quality and its suitability for irrigation purpose of Fox Sagar Lake, Hyderabad, Telangana State. As a part of this, fourteen samples were collected from the lake during monsoon season of 2014 and analyzed for various physico-chemical parameters like pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness (TH), Carbonates (CO3 2- ), Bicarbonates (HCO3 - ), Total Alkalinity (TA), Chloride (Cl- ), Sodium (Na+ ), Potassium (K+ ), Calcium (Ca2+) and Magnesium (Mg2+) were analyzed. To assess the suitability of lake water for irrigation, various indices like Hydrogen Ion Activity (pH), Salinity Hazard, Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Scott quality factor (alkali-metric coefficient or K), Permeability Index (PI) and Kelly's Index (KI) were calculated and found that lake waters falls under good quality

Hydrogeochemistry of Groundwater from Different Aquifer in Lower Kelantan Basin, Kelantan, Malaysia

The groundwater geochemistry of Lower Kelantan Basin was evaluated based on major ions characteristic to determine its suitability for drinking, domestic use and irrigation. Groundwater samples from different aquifer layers (shallow, intermediate and deep) were collected and analysed for pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solid (TDS), Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4, CO3, HCO3, NO3, Fe and Mn. The results show that the shallow groundwater is dominated by Ca-HCO3 and Na-HCO3 while intermediate is dominated by Na-Cl and Na-HCO3, and deep aquifer by Na-HCO3 water facies. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and salinity hazard indicate that the groundwater from shallow and deep aquifer is suitable for irrigation purposes, and part of intermediate aquifer is not suitable for crop irrigation. Groundwater from shallow and deep aquifer is regarded as fresh water and suitable for drinking, domestic and agricultural irrigation use while groundwater from intermediate aquifer is slightly brackish water particularly closed to coastal area.