Salinity Hazard Research Articles

Evaluation of hydrogeochemical parameters and quality assessment of the groundwater in Kottur blocks, Tiruvarur district, Tamilnadu, India

A study was conducted to evaluate the water quality of Kottur block, Thiruvarur district, Tamilnadu. Groundwater samples from hand pumps and tube wells of 16 stations were analyzed during postmonsoon and premonsoon (2008) with the help of standard methods of APHA (1995). Dominance of cations are in the following order Na>Ca>K>Mg and Cl>SO4>HCO3>NO3 by anions in both the seasons. The analytical results shows higher concentration of total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, sodium, chloride, and sulfate which indicate signs of deterioration but values of pH, calcium, magnesium, and nitrate are within permissible limit as per World Health Organization standards. From the Piper trilinear diagram, it is observed that the majority of groundwater samples are Na-Cl and Ca-Mg-SO4 facies clearly indicates seawater incursion. In Wilcox diagram, most of the samples fall in low to very high sodium hazard and low to very high salinity hazard indicates moderately suitable for agricultural activities. Kelly’s ratio and magnesium ratio indicates most of the samples fall in suitable for irrigation purpose.

Sustainable Tank Irrigation: an Irrigation Water Quality Perspective

Thiruvallur district, a newly formed district bifurcated from erstwhile Chengalpattu district is located in the north east part of Tamil Nadu, India with agriculture as main occupation. The total cultivated area of the district is 184198 hectares. Nearly 47% of the total work force is engaged in agriculture supported by tank irrigation. In this study, 10 major irrigation tanks in the district was selected and analyzed for its water quality during the period Oct to Dec 2010 (northeast monsoon). The objective of this paper is to develop a better understanding of the effect of water quality upon soil and crops and to assist in selecting suitable alternatives to cope with the potential water quality related problems that might reduce production under prevailing conditions of use. The parameters studied include salinity hazard, sodium hazard, pH, alkalinity and other specific ions like chloride (Cl), sulphate (SO 4 2- ) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO 3 -N). Out of the 10 irrigation tanks investigated, problems related to salinity and sodium hazard was identified in irrigation waters of two tanks. The potential severity of problems that can be expected to develop during long term uses is studied for all the tanks and special management practices required to maintain acceptable crop yields is suggested.

Hydrochemical and water quality assessment of groundwater in Doon Valley of Outer Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India

The present study discusses ion sources and assesses the chemical quality of groundwater of Doon Valley in Outer Himalayan region for drinking and irrigational purposes. Valley is almost filled with Doon gravels that are main aquifers supplying water to its habitants. Recharged only by meteoric water, groundwater quality in these aquifers is controlled essentially by chemical processes occurring between water and lithology and locally altered by human activities. Seventy-six water samples were collected from dug wells, hand pumps and tube wells and were analysed for their major ion concentrations. The pH is varying from 5.6 to 7.4 and electrical conductivity from 71 to 951 μmho/cm. Groundwater of Doon valley is dominated by bicarbonate contributing 83% in anionic abundance while calcium and magnesium dominate in cationic concentrations with 88%. The seasonal and spatial variation in ionic concentration, in general, is related to discharge and lithology. The high ratio of (Ca + Mg)/(Na + K), i.e. 10, low ratio of (Na + K)/TZ+, i.e.0.2 and also the presence of carbonate lithology in the northern part of valley, is indicative of carbonate dissolution as the main controlling solute acquisition process in the valley. The low abundance of silica content and high HCO₃/H₄SiO₄ ratio also supports carbonate dissolution and less significant role of silicate weathering as the major source for dissolved ions in Doon Valley. The analytical results computed for various indices show that water is of fairly good quality, although, hard but have moderate dissolved solid content. It is free from sodium hazard lying in C₁-S₁ and C₂-S₁ class of USSL diagram and in general suitable for drinking and irrigation except few locations having slightly high salinity hazard.

Sodicity and Salinity Hazards in Water Flow Processes in the Soil

Groundwater is one of the natural resource with the potential for domestic, agricultural and industrial consumption. This paper presents the results of the distribution of salinity characteristics (electrical conductivity and sodium adsorption ratio) of groundwater and based on the results, the evaluation of the sodicity and salinity hazards or in the processes if such groundwater is used for such purposes has been restrictive. This is because of the salinization of aquifers generated by rock salt present below the aquifers. The issue was studied for the groundwater environment in the Karha river basin area, Baramati, Pune, (M.S.) India, for the period of September 2009 to August 2010. The measured data were presented in the form of graphical attachments. The average annual values of the electrical conductivity of groundwater ranged from 490 to 8920 µS/cm in the examined period. Data obtained from analysis signifies the salinity of groundwater in study area is high to very high salinity and can’t be used for crops in a soil with restricted drainage but it can be used under very special circumstances. The sodium adsorption ratio values indicate low, medium to high sodium salinization of the groundwater.

Hydrochemical characteristics of the major water springs in the Yarmouk Basin, north Jordan

The water quality of major springs in the Yar-mouk Basin (north Jordan) experienced degra-dation due to rapid urbanization and industri-alization. In order to check their suitability for irrigation, drinking and industrial purposes, a research work was conducted to assess the degree of ionic toxicity in these water sources. Thirty-six water samples were analyzed for dif-ferent elements of dominant cations and anions such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, and HCO3 together with other minor ions P, B, NO3, SO4, and Cl. To classify water quality, parameters such as so-dium adsorption ratio (SAR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP) and residual sodium carbon-ate (RSC) were calculated. Concentrations of major cations and anions are low compared to their permissible levels in potable water. The total dissolved solids is 617 mg/l or below, which indicates the presence of fresh water. The fresh water condition is also verified by low to mod-erate electrical conductivity (347-1234 ?S/cm) and lower than 8.09 pH values. The concentra-tion of total iron (0.0-0.09 mg/l) falls below the maximum permissible limit of 1 mg/l. The low SAR (0.5 to 1.34) coupled with low electrical conductivity, gives the water medium salinity hazard and low sodium hazard. Thus, the water is general of suitable chemical quality for do-mestic, agricultural and most industrial uses.

Hydro-geochemical characteristics of groundwater of Sirhind Nala sub-basin (Ghaggar river basin, India) in relation to salinity hazard

Hydro-geochemical investigation of groundwater of Sirhind Nala sub-basin of the Ghaggar river basin (Southwest Punjab) has been carried out to study the distribution and sources of various dissolved ions. The levels of EC indicated that high salinity of groundwater was confined to small patches. The variations in EC levels seem to be related to non-flushing of water entrapped by clay beds, predominant in the region. High concentrations of SO42−, K+, NO3− and Cl− indicated influence of anthropogenic activities. Furthermore, the groundwater was also assessed for its suitability for drinking purposes. The present study reveals that the water quality of the Sirhind Nala sub-basin has significantly deteriorated; which makes it unfit for drinking, as well as for agricultural purposes.

Tuz Gölü`nün Aksaray İli Yeraltı Sularına Etkisinin Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemi Kullanılarak Değerlendirilmesi

As a result o f unplanned groundwater use, the effects o f The Salt Lake on the fresh water sources have increased. This case will associate with significant environment problems around the Salt Lake and its environments. In this study, the data have been evaluated for the groundwater samples taken from Aksaray which is one o f the agricultural areas o f Turkey and bounded o f south and east shores o f the Salt Lake. Totally 40 groundwater samples including 3 spring and 37 well were sampled from the region. The physical and chemical parameters o f the water quality were investigated bi monthly during one year. The maps of water quality were prepared by using the Geographic Information System (GIS) to evaluate well effectively the data o f the groundwater. The groundwaters generally have medium salinity hazard rate and a low sodium (alkali) hazard rate in terms o f irrigation water use according to the USA Salinity Laboratory Irrigation Water Classification Diagram. While the increase o f the salinity have showed the presence of enters o f the saline water in the south and the south-east shores o f The Salt Lake, it have decreased the quality o f fresh waters with respect to the drinking and the use water.

Utilising Airborne Electromagnetics (AEM) to Map Key Elements of the Hydrogeological System and Salinity Hazard in the Ord Valley, Western Australia.

Utilising Airborne Electromagnetics (AEM) to Map Key Elements of the Hydrogeological System and Salinity Hazard in the Ord Valley, Western Australia.

Using AEM data as part of an Integrated Assessment of the Salinity Hazard and Risk to Gunbower State Forest and the River Murray Floodplain in the Gunbower Island-Barr Creek reach of the Murray River, SE Australia.

Using AEM data as part of an Integrated Assessment of the Salinity Hazard and Risk to Gunbower State Forest and the River Murray Floodplain in the Gunbower Island-Barr Creek reach of the Murray River, SE Australia.

Tephra-mulched soils irrigated with reclaimed urban wastewater in former dry-farming systems of Lanzarote (Spain)

On the island of Lanzarote, under extreme conditions of aridity and water scarcity, a certain amount of rainfed agriculture has been possible due to the use of tephra mulching, a system known locally as arenados , which is a very effective water and soil conservation system. The natural arenados are associated to already present tephra from recent volcanic eruptions. In artificial arenados a 5 to 20 cm layer of pyroclasts is placed over the soil. Over the last decade, the availability of urban reclaimed water (RW) has allowed irrigation networks to be established in artificial arenados with significant increases in crop yields. In this work, a preliminary evaluation of the sustainability of this new form of management was performed. Field plots irrigated with tertiary effluent for almost a decade were studied and compared with adjacent dry-farming fields, both cropped with sweet potatoes. In both cases, the soils had a covering of basaltic tephra mulch. The irrigation lines are placed on top of the mulch. Although this was not a controlled field experiment, since water and soil management was not exactly the same in the studied plots, some significant effects of RW irrigation on soil chemical properties were identified. Crop yields in the irrigated fields can be up to three times the yields obtained under rainfed conditions. The RW quality posed some restrictions for irrigation, particularly as regards salinity, sodicity and boron, although their buildup in soils appears to have been reduced by the mulch effect. In some field plots, crop critical threshold values of soil salinity and boron were reached with no harmful consequences. This developing soil degradation suggests that the sustainability of arenados systems under RW irrigation would appear to be under threat in the mid- to long-term based on current management practices. Further research is required on the salt and boron dynamics in this system, which is an example of conservation agriculture that also helps combat desertification. ► Introduction of irrigation has permitted to conserve dry-farming tephra-mulched soils. ► Important increase of crop yields. ► Long-term sustainability can be threaten by sodium, boron, and salinity hazards.

Evaluation of Water from Bokro Stream for Irrigation and Its Effect on Soil

This study focused on evaluating the water quality of the Bokro stream for its suitability for irrigation purposes. Among the water quality parameters examined were pH, total dissolved solids, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, major ions and concentration of some trace metals. The results revealed that most of the parameters examined were below the FAO limits for irrigation water. The results also indicated that nutrient concentrations (Sulphate, Nitrate-Nitrogen and Phosphate-Phosphorus) from the stream were far below the usual ranges in irrigation water. Based on values calculated for Sodium Adsorption Ratio and electrical conductivity, the water source could be described as possessing low salinity hazard and therefore no permeability problems are expected for the soils. In addition, human activities along the banks of the stream and inflow of untreated domestic sewage from communities in the catchment area of the stream were found to have great impact on the quality of water from the stream. Water from the stream will have no adverse effect on the soil when it is use for irrigation.Keywords: Bokro stream, Irrigation, Salinity hazard, Self purification, Waste water

EVALUATING THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION WATER ON LEVEL OF HEAVY METALS IN SOIL IN AL- HASSA OASIS, SAUDI ARABIA

The present study is conducted to investigate the effect of irrigation water quality on heavy metals content in soil of Al- Hassa Oasis. The investigated irrigation water included groundwater (GW), mixture of groundwater and drainage water (GW+DW), mixture of groundwater and tertiary treated wastewater (GW+TTWW) and mixture of groundwater, drainage water and tertiary treated wastewater (GW+DW+TTWW). The results of this study indicate that the water types used in the present study may cause one problem or another according to the water type. By applying the criteria used for interpreting water quality for irrigation, the most domain problems are salinity hazard, potential salinity and soluble sodium percentage. Therefore, it is expected that continuous irrigation without good water management (leaching requirements) can led to severe problems from the salinity point of view. (GW+DW +TTWW) have the highest effect on elemental composition of soil followed by (GW+TTWW), (GW+DW) and then (GW). Generally, a significant difference in the heavy metals concentrations for both treated soil was found. The contents of the heavy metals in soil samples are compared with the worldwide standards. Based on these comparisons some recommendations are raised.

Environmental impacts of desalination on the ecology of Lake Urmia

Lake Urmia, the second largest hypersaline lake by area in the world, has fluctuated in salinity over time, but in recent years, it has reached a maximum of 340 g/L. The lake is the main habitat for the endemic Iranian brine shrimp, Artemia urmiana, and is a protected aquatic environment. Efforts have been made by the Iranian government to enhance the diversity of its wildlife. One approach has been to look for a method to reduce the salt content of the lake. We investigate the feasibility of this by first considering the water chemistry of Lake Urmia and then the various technologies used to extract salt from marine and brackish waters. Average concentrations of Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cl, SO 4, and HCO 3 were 125 g/L, 11.3 g/L, 2.63 g/L, 0.55 g/L, 216 g/L, 22.4 g/L, and 1.38 g/L, respectively, and cations and anions were balanced, However, Lake Urmia waters have a ‘very high’ salinity hazard and a high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). Moreover, the saturation index (SI) for each of the major cations was greater than zero, indicating that the water in Lake Urmia is supersaturated, and precipitation is likely. The extraction of available salts from the lake for the use in petrochemical industries is economically feasible. However, technologies based on removing salts by distillation or reverse osmosis and then using this fresh water to dilute lake salinity are problematic. A better strategy would be better to allow more fresh water to reach the lake rather than creating fresh water through reverse osmosis and distillations processes. While concerns have been raised about the salinity tolerance of A . urmiana, it has successfully tolerated various salinity ranges from 166 to 340 g/L, and so the species is not threatened, unless the lake desiccates. Because the lake is saturated with salts, it seems unlikely that salinity could increase much higher.

Spatio-temporal characterization of the Pliocene aquifer conditions in Wadi El-Natrun area, Egypt

Wadi El-Natrun area has recently undergone extensive urban and agricultural expansion. Due to the absence of natural surface irrigation supplies, the only source of water in the area is the Pliocene groundwater aquifer. As a result, secondary salinization from increased abstractions is the major threat to the groundwater aquifer. There is a dire need for efficient strategies to ensure long-term sustainability of the area’s productive agriculture. These strategies should be based on scientific spatio-temporal monitoring and analysis of the groundwater conditions that is also lacking. To capture the spatio-temporal variability in groundwater conditions, field measurements of total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, pH, temperature, and water level as well as lab-based ionic composition were performed on 47 groundwater samples collected during 2006 and 2007. Determinations of the hydrochemical characteristics, water types, salt assemblages, and the sodium adsorption ratio were carried out on the samples. Reference data sets recorded in 1973 and 1997 were available for the area and were used to monitor the changes occurred in these periods. Geographic information system (GIS) was appraised for mapping and for integrated analysis of the different layers. Remotely sensed change detection techniques were applied to the Landsat TM and the ETM + imageries and used to highlight the extensive reclamation and urbanization and to find key trends for the alterations in the groundwater conditions and their spatial association with land covers. Results revealed a topographic depression-induced flow pattern, predominance of leaching and dissolution processes, the presence of saline lakes, over-pumping from the Pliocene aquifer, and temporal changes in land uses are the main factors combined to control the spatio-temporal variability in the groundwater. Results also clarified the presence of two: northwestern and southeastern zones that varied distinctively in their hydrodynamic and hydrochemical characteristics. The northwestern zone showed an average water level decline of 15 m, the water of which is brackish (av. 2,037 mg/l) with dominant Na+, Cl− and SO42− ions. The groundwater of this zone is characterized by high to very high salinity hazard and high to very high alkali hazard and is not recommended for irrigation on soils with poor drainage and without proper management for salinity control. The southeastern zone showed water level decline less than 2 m, the water of which is fresh (av. 424 mg/l) with major Na+, HCO3−, Cl−, and SO42− ions, and quality suitable for irrigation with medium to high salinity and low to medium alkali hazards. The article represents the first step towards an integrated management of Wadi El-Natrun groundwater resources within a GIS framework.

Hydrochemical profile for assessing the groundwater quality of Sambhar lake City and its Adjoining area

Quality assessment of water is essential to ensure sustainable safe use of it for drinking, agricultural, and industrial purposes. For the same purpose the study was conducted for the samples of water of Sambhar lake city and its adjoining areas. The standard methods of APHA were used to analysis 15 samples collected from hand pumps and tube wells of the specified area. The analytical results show higher concentration of total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity sodium, nitrate, sulfate, and fluoride, which indicate signs of deterioration but values of pH, calcium, magnesium, total hardness, and carbonate are within permissible limits as per WHO standards. From the Hill-piper trilinear diagram, it is observed that the majority of groundwater from sampling stations are sodium-potassium-chloride-sulfate type water. The values of sodium absorption ratio and electrical conductivity of the groundwater were plotted in the US salinity laboratory diagram for irrigation water. Only the one sample fall in C(3)S(1) quality with high salinity hazard and low sodium hazard. Other samples fall in high salinity hazard and high sodium hazard. Chemical analysis of groundwater shows that mean concentration of cation is in order sodium > magnesium > calcium > potassium while for the anion it is chloride > bicarbonate > nitrate > sulfate.

Corn crop response under managing different irrigation and salinity levels

Non-uniformity of water distribution under irrigation system creates both deficit and surplus irrigation areas. Water salinity can be hazard on crop production; however, there is little information on the interaction of irrigation and salinity conditions on corn (Zea Mays) growth and production. This study evaluated the effect of salinity and irrigation levels on growth and yield of corn grown in the arid area of Egypt. A field experiment was conducted using corn grown in northern Egypt at Quesina, Menofia in 2009 summer season to evaluate amount of water applied, salinity hazard and their interactions. Three salinity levels and five irrigation treatments were arranged in a randomized split-plot design with salinity treatments as main plots and irrigation rates within salinity treatments. Salinity treatments were to apply fresh water (0.89 dS m−1), saline water (4.73 dS m−1), or mixing fresh plus saline water (2.81 dS m−1). Irrigation treatments were a ratio of crop evapotranspiration (ET) as: 0.6ET, 0.8ET, 1.0ET, 1.2ET, and 1.4ET. In well-watered conditions (1.0ET), seasonal water usable by corn was 453, 423, and 380 mm for 0.89EC, 2.81EC and 4.73EC over the 122-day growing season, respectively. Soil salt accumulation was significantly increased by either irrigation salinity increase or amount decrease. But, soil infiltration was significantly decreased by either salinity level or its interaction with irrigation amount. Leaf temperature, transpiration rate, and stomata resistance were significantly affected by both irrigation and salinity levels with interaction. Leaf area index, harvest index, and yield were the greatest when fresh and adequate irrigation was applied. Grain yield was significantly affected in a linear relationship (r2 ≥ 0.95) by either irrigation or salinity conditions with no interaction. An optimal irrigation scheduling was statistically developed based on crop response for a given salinity level to extrapolate data from the small experiment (uniform condition) to big field (non-uniformity condition) under the experiment constraints.

Groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking and agricultural use in Ain Azel plain, Algeria

Hydrochemistry of groundwater in Ain Azel plain, Algeria was used to assess the quality of groundwater for determining its suitability for drinking and agricultural purposes. Interpretation of analytical data shows that Ca-Mg-HCO3 and Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 are the dominant hydrochemical facies in the study area. Factor analysis generated three significant factors. Factor 1 includes EC, Ca++, Mg++, Na+ and Cl-, factor 2 has high loading values of K+ and HCO3- and the factor 3 includes SO4-- and NO3-. The US salinity diagram illustrates that most of the samples fall in C3S1 quality with high salinity hazard and low sodium hazard. The groundwater of Ain Azel plain is low concentration of nitrogenous elements (NO3- and NO2-) and the higher concentration of trace elements (Pb++ and Fe++) may entail various health hazards. Key words: Groundwater, drinking and irrigation water quality, factor analysis, US salinity laboratory diagram, Ain Azel, Algeria.

Groundwater quality degradation of an aquifer in Iran central desert

Hydrochemical quality of groundwater in an aquifer in central Iran adjacent to central Kavir desert was analyzed in this study. The dominant type of groundwater in the area is Na + K_Cl + SO4 which is mainly different from the common type of fresh waters in Iran (Ca_HCO 3). The spatial distribution of anions and cations as well as EC obeys an increasing pattern eastwards. Due to high concentrations of SO 4 2−, Cl −, K + and Na + all of the water samples are not categorized in suitable ranges for drinking use. Regarding agricultural use suitability of regional groundwaters, except for 4 samples in central parts of the study area which show high salinity hazard, all other samples are absolutely not applicable for agriculture due to extremely high values of EC. Illegal groundwater pumping mainly for regional agricultural use during recent years has caused groundwater quality degradation due to saline water intrusion from eastern areas (central Kavir desert and salt lake) and connate water upcoming from deeper aquifers. As the main use of water in the study area is contributed to agriculture, implementing modern mechanized irrigation techniques accompanied by planting crops with low water demand and high tolerance against salinity may be recommended.

Hydrochemistry and Classification of Groundwater Resources of Ishwardi Municipal Area, Pabna District, Bangladesh

The chemical property of groundwater depends largely on the mineralogical composition of the rocks through which the water has moved and the rate of movement and these characteristics of surface water depend on organic and inorganic reactions, industrial effluents, rainfall and temperature etc. The underground water tends to contain more dissolved materials than those in surface water because of their more intimate and longer contact with organic materials of soil and rock particles. The groundwater of the studied area is dominant of alkaline earth's (Ca 2? and Mg 2? ) and weak acids (HCO3 - ) which may be classified as Magnesium-Bicarbonate and Calcium Carbonate types. Genetically, the ground- water of the area belongs to both ''Normal Chloride'' ''Normal Sulphate'' and ''Normal Carbonate'' to ''Super Carbonate'' group. Based on EC, SAR and RC, the groundwater of the area varies from good- excellent quality for irrigation purposes with low alkali hazard and medium salinity hazard.

Salt mapping in the Lower Macquarie area, Australia, using airborne electromagnetic data

An airborne electromagnetic survey was flown over 13 000 km2 in the Lower Macquarie Valley in central New South Wales, Australia. Whilst bulk conductivity values from the survey provide useful insights into the regional hydrogeology of the area, mapping salinity and salinity hazards requires the derivation of salt store values from the survey data. This paper describes the methodology of deriving salt stores from conductivity data and accompanying physical measurements. A post-flight sampling programme involving physical, chemical, electromagnetic and geological examination of cores from eight drill holes provides field-based measurements through which the bulk conductivity data can be related to salt stores. Linear models were generated to understand the relationship between salt stores, conductivity and other parameters, and to produce an optimum salt store map from the data. A strong relationship was evident between observed salt stores and drill hole-derived observations, which include parameters such as conductivity, lithology, stratigraphy, lithostratigraphy/weathering and depth. The main predictor for salt stores was observed conductivity with only a minor influence due to lithology. Significant salt stores are predicted at depth in the northern part of the survey. Superficial salt stores are generally low (<4 kg/m3) in the Lower Macquarie and should not pose a threat to native vegetation or agricultural activities.