Saleable Product Research Articles

Technical and economic evaluation of separation of dimethyl disulfide from disulfide oil at liquefied petroleum gas treatment facilities of Assaluyeh gas refinery

AbstractDisulfide oil (DSO) is produced as a hydrocarbon sulfide waste stream in liquefied petroleum gas and condensate sweetening units in refineries and can cause acute environmental pollutions. In this article, a simple process composed of two units including a distillation unit and a hydrodesulfurization (HDS) unit is proposed to overcome the disulfide oil problem in refineries. The commercial HDS catalyst is CoMo type that is applicable for hydrotreating of DSO. This catalyst is developed by different licensors such as Axens. The high sulfur content in DSO feed causes an increase in heat of reaction and partial pressure of H2S in HDS reactor. By using special design techniques such as reactor quenching or increase H2/oil ratio, the reactor can be designed properly for DSO feed. The waste stream DSO is converted to valuable products including: dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), sweet gas and condensate. A process flow diagram consisting of distillation and HDS units together with amine treating and hydrogen compression system is proposed and simulation of the process is carried out by Aspen plus: The distillation unit separates DMDS and the HDS unit removes sulfur from remainder DSO. Capital cost estimation methodology is based on bare module factor. The capital and operating cost of the process are estimated for a real capacity of DSO just produced in south pars of Iran. Financial parameters and sensitivity analysis show that the process is feasible both technically and economically with an internal rate of return of 73.6%. The proposed process is accepted environmentally by converting a harmful waste to saleable products.

Recycling Plant to Turn Plastic Waste into Saleable Products

Recycling Plant to Turn Plastic Waste into Saleable Products

From an idea to a recycling industry

Plastic waste from industrial companies and commerce constitutes a considerable potential for recovery and conservation of resources. But there are hundreds of different sorts of plastic, in other words, plastic waste is a problem due to its heterogenous nature. The possibility of manufacturing commmercially saleable products from unwashed recycled plastics has been very restricted. For its normal range of products, the plastics industry has required absolutely pure raw materials and it has not been economically justifiable to wash and to produce this from recycled material.
 By adding organic fibres, such as short woodfibres, with the mixed recycled termoplastics, a composite material POLYWOOD is produced. The granulate mixture is extruded to different profiles, called POLYPLANK, that can be handle like wood but which withstands rot, moisture, soil, etc.and is completely recyclable several times.
 Polyplank are used for manufacturing of noise barrier sections, recycling yard enclosures, interior fittings in animal boxes etc

THE STUDY OF THE PECULIARITIES OF THE COMPOSITION OF WOODY GREEN SPRUCE IN THE ARCTIC RE-GION OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA AND POSSIBILITIES OF ITS COMPLEX PROCESSING

Spruce contains a huge variety of bioactive substances concentration and composition of which are determined by both species and climate factors. Particularities of biosynthesis of these compounds in conditions of cold climate and high level of bogginess are underexplored. For this reason the aim of the work is to investigate the particularities of composition of common spruce which vegetates on the subarctic territory of Russian Federation and to study if there is the possibility of its processing into saleable products. The main methods of spruce conversion are extraction and mechanic grinding of fresh and extracted spruce to procure feeding flour. In this work extraction was conducted with such methods as infusion, reflux with infusion in Soxhlet apparatus and reflux in Twisselman apparatus. Ethanol at a concentration 96% was used as extracting agent. It was identified that method of reflux allows us to get the ultimate yield of extractives, reflux with infusion in Soxhlet apparatus permits extraction with the lowest degradation of bioactive substances. The total yield of extractives, component context of extracts (water soluble substances, fats, pigments, flavonoids, sugars, ascorbic acid), microelements were determined. Coniferous paste is a product obtained on the basis of alcohol extracts, and is not inferior in quality to chlorophyll carotin paste. Feeding flour which was procured from extracted spruce has quite good digestibility and could be serviceable enough for feeding purposes.

Dressing percentage and the differential between live weight and carcass weight in cattle are influenced by both genetic and non-genetic factors1.

The objective of the present study was to quantify the genetic and non-genetic contributors to variability in both carcass dressing percentage and dressing difference (i.e., the difference between carcass weight and live weight immediately prior to slaughter) in young animals and cows. The datasets contained 18,479 young animals from 653 herds, and 2,887 cows from 665 herds. Live weight records within 7 d of slaughter and associated carcass weight were available for all animals. Association analyses were undertaken using linear mixed models with fixed effects for the model of young animals consisting of animal breed, days between the date of last recorded live weight and slaughter date, heterosis and recombination loss coefficients, dam parity, a 3-way interaction between whether the animal originated in a dairy or beef herd, animal sex, and age at slaughter, as well as a 2-way interaction between calendar year of slaughter and month of slaughter; contemporary group was included as a random effect. Fixed effects in the cow model were cow breed, the number of days between the date of last recorded live weight and slaughter date, heterosis and recombination loss coefficients, the number of days postcalving, parity of the cow, and a 2-way interaction between calendar year of slaughter and month of slaughter; contemporary group was included as a random effect. The mean dressing percentage (phenotypic standard deviation in parentheses) and dressing difference in young animals were 55.86% (3.21%) and 280.03 kg (41.44 kg), respectively. Steers had the heaviest dressing difference at 34.18 and 60.44 kg heavier than a 16-mo old bull and 22-mo old heifer, respectively. Dressing difference for 30-mo old Simmental steers (breed with heaviest dressing difference) was 41.66 kg heavier than 30-mo old Belgian Blue steers (breed with lightest dressing difference). The heritability of dressing percentage (0.48) and dressing difference (0.35) in young animals was relatively similar to each other, in contrast to dressing percentage (0.08) in cows which was considerably lower than dressing difference (0.28). Considerable genetic variability existed in dressing difference amongst young animals (genetic standard deviation of 15.03 kg), despite the near unity genetic correlation (0.93) between carcass weight and live weight. This therefore indicates that genetic selection for increased saleable product can be achieved by selecting for increased carcass weight while concurrently selecting for lighter animals although the opportunity is limited by the strong part-whole relationships that exists between carcass weight, live weight, and dressing difference.

Basil Performance Evaluation in Aquaponics

Basil (Ocimum sp.) is a fast-growing, high-value cash crop for aquaponics. Plant suitability evaluation in tropical conditions is critical to recommend new cultivars, increasing grower portfolio and minimizing the production risks associated with untested selections. Two trials were conducted to identify suitable basil cultivars for tropical outdoor aquaponics production using the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI) Commercial Aquaponics System in the U.S. Virgin islands. We evaluated five basil cultivars in Summer 2015 (Genovese, Lemon, Purple Ruffles, Red Rubin, and Spicy Globe), and seven cultivars in Fall 2015 (Cinnamon, Genovese, Lemon, Purple Ruffles, Red Rubin, Spicy Globe, and Thai). In both trials, 3-week-old seedlings were transplanted in net pots at a density of 1.5 plants/ft2 (16.15 plants/m2). The 6-inch portions and upper portions of the canopy were harvested as a salable product and the resultant material (leaves and stems) considered as total yield per square meter. In the summer, yield was higher in ‘Genovese’ (14.91 kg·m−2) and ‘Spicy Globe’ (13.99 kg·m−2); ‘Purple Ruffles’ resulted in the lowest yield (4.18 kg·m−2). Leaf anthocyanin was greater for the red cultivars Red Rubin [28.35 anthocyanin content index (ACI)] and Purple Ruffles (34.36 ACI) compared with the other cultivars. Chlorophyll content was the highest in ‘Genovese’ [48.59 chlorophyll content index (CCI)]. In the fall, ‘Cinnamon’ (6.60 kg·m−2), ‘Genovese’ (6.70 kg·m−2), and ‘Spicy Globe’ (6.35 kg·m−2) showed the highest yield and ‘Purple Ruffles’ the lowest (1.68 kg·m−2). Leaf anthocyanin differed in all cultivars, with the higher values in Purple Ruffles (80.5 ACI) and Red Rubin (36.5 ACI). Chlorophyll content was a response of plant growth and cultivar, with values increasing over time and ranging from 12.06 (Lemon) to 17.99 CCI (Cinnamon). Plant growth index (PGI) was higher than that of other cultivars in Genovese and Lemon on day 58 (summer), and higher in Cinnamon on day 87 (fall). Yield was greater during the summer, which was calculated from May to August, in comparison with the fall, calculated from September to November. Yield declined for the fourth harvest in the summer, indicating that growers may need to end production after the third harvest and replant the crop. The results of this experiment indicate that basil has potential as a specialty, short-season, and high-value crop in the UVI Commercial Aquaponics System. Of the cultivars tested, Genovese and Spicy Globe were the highest yielding cultivars within the environmental and geographical conditions of this study for two consecutive seasons (summer and fall).

Beef steer production from two local breeds under two management systems differing in the utilisation of mountain pastures

Steer meat production is insufficient to meet market demand in northern Spain. This study aimed to compare steer production from two local beef breeds, Asturian Valley (AV) and Asturian Mountain (AM), and two management strategies, differing in yearling steers grazing summer mountain pastures (M treatment) or lowland grasslands (L treatment). A total of 83 calves born in winter-spring were studied during four whole life-cycles. During their first year of life, calves were managed with their dams on summer pastures and weaned when returned to lowlands. Once castrated, half of the yearlings of each breed were randomly assigned to treatment M or L. After summer grazing, all steers were managed at lowlands until they were slaughtered at an age of approximately 33 months after a finishing period of 3–4 months with maize silage and concentrate diet. In general, bodyweight gains were greater in AV than in AM breed, resulting in greater slaughter (714 versus 616 kg) and carcase weights. During the second summer season, AM steers gained more bodyweight than AV in summer pastures, resulting in a breed × management interaction. In the next periods (autumn grazing, winter and spring grazing), M steers showed a compensatory growth counterbalancing their previous lower performance, whereas no differences between treatments or breeds were found in the finishing period. As a result, no differences between managements were observed in final bodyweight at slaughter or carcase weight. Summer pastures offer opportunities to manage yearling steers without adversely affecting saleable product yields.HighlightsSteer meat production could be enhanced utilising local animal and pasture resources.Although the larger local breed was more productive, the smaller breed was better suited to mountain pastures.Grazing steers on summer mountain pastures as yearlings resulted in similar yields at slaughter compared with those using lowland grasslands.

Market potential for industrial ash and slag waste in Primorsky Krai, Russia

This article addresses the issues of estimating economic benefits of ash and slag resource potential in Primorsky Krai on the example of CHPP-2, Vladivostok. The conducted research focused on chemical and ultimate composition of ash and slag waste (ASW) of heat power plants of Primorsky Krai. The research objectives were to determine the commercially valuable components and opportunities for their conversion into saleable products. The resource potential of Vladivostok CHPP-2 landfill was determined. Estimates on economic benefits of ASW conversion process were obtained.

ANALYSIS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS NETWORKS FOR ABSORPTION CLEANING UNITS IN HIGH CAPACITY GASIFICATION PLANTS

The basic heat exchangers networks of big gasification plants with fossil fuel gasification are considered. The main logistical factors that influence process flowsheets configurations of gasification plants are underlined such as natural quality and components content of fuel to be gasified, range of target products, environmental legislation and demands including regulations for greenhouse gases emission, location relatively to big industrial sites, possibilities of wastes conversion into saleable products. The essential ways of the efficiency enhancement of heat exchangers networks are formulated for integrated gasification plants of combined cycle. The existing systems of syngas absorption cleaning in big gasification plants are discussed. The ways of energy saving retrofit of such systems are defined. The use of plate heat exchangers is considered as perspective for heat transfer components of gases removal systems.

Tunable copper-hydrotalcite derived mixed oxides for sustainable ethanol condensation to n-butanol in liquid phase

Improvement of processes starting from renewable feedstocks to produce chemicals and biofuels up to now derived from fossil carbon feedstocks is paramount to creating environmentally sustainable industrial processes. Guerbet condensation of ethanol to give n-butanol represents a turning point not only respect to the traditional petrochemical “oxo” process, but also to the bio-chemical path (Acetone Butanol Ethanol “ABE” process). In this work, different Cu/Mg/Al hydrotalcite-derived mixed oxides catalysts, with Cu atomic content in the range 7.6–1.0%, were synthetised, characterized, and tested for the Guerbet reaction. The adopted catalysts are easy to produce, and based on available, cheap and non-toxic metals. Tailoring Cu-content in hydrotalcite-derived Cu/Mg/Al mixed oxides allowed us to selectively address this reaction towards n-butanol formation, highlighting how a low Cu-content favours the condensation to n-butanol and higher alcohols, in particular n-hexanol, decreasing the ester formation. The Guerbet selective co-production of [n-butanol + n-hexanol] is economically even more attractive than that of the sole n-butanol, being both saleable products. Good catalytic performances to n-butanol and n-hexanol were achieved, in a batch process carried out under subcritical conditions. These catalysts have required a simple procedure of recovery, showing good recyclability, in term of catalytic performances to give the target products, thus opening the way to applicative perspectives.

Continuous condensed-phase ethanol conversion to higher alcohols: Experimental results and techno-economic analysis

The conversion of ethanol to n-butanol and higher alcohols is carried out in a continuous fixed bed reactor over a Ni/La2O3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst at 210–250 °C and 100 bar. At these conditions, the reaction mixture is a condensed, near-critical phase that facilitates higher reaction rates than corresponding vapor phase reactions. Combined selectivity to n-butanol and C6+ higher alcohols reached 74% at 41% ethanol conversion. A process concept is presented in which n-butanol and mixed C6+ alcohols are produced as saleable products; ethanol is recycled to achieve nearly 100% overall conversion and minor byproducts are burned to provide process energy. A process design is conducted using Aspen Plus V8.4 process simulation software, and economic analyses are carried out for several cases of ethanol conversion and alcohol selectivities. Several additional cases involving permutations of the base process configuration are also examined in attempts to improve process economics. At n-butanol selectivities achieved experimentally, a facility producing 75 million kg n-butanol per year has a total capital cost of $38.1 million with a required n-butanol selling price of $1.55/kg to $1.60/kg for typical values of expected return on investment.

A Geometallurgical Approach to Tailings Management: An Example from the Savage River Fe-Ore Mine, Western Tasmania

At the Old Tailings Dam (OTD), Savage River, Western Tasmania, 38 Mt of pyritic tailings were deposited (1967 to 1982) and have since been generating acid and metalliferous drainage (AMD). Mineral chemistry analysis confirmed high concentrations of refractory cobalt in pyrite (up to 3 wt %). This study sought to determine, through a series of bench scale tests, if Co could be liberated using biohydrometallurgical techniques. Four bulk tailings samples were collected across the OTD, from up to 1.5 m depth, targeting three sulphide-bearing facies. The study was conducted in four stages: (1) bacterial adaption using BIOX® bacteria; (2) biooxidation optimization with pH, temperature and Fe medium parameters tested; (3) flotation test work to produce a sulphide concentrate followed by biooxidation; and (4) Fe and Co precipitation tests. The BIOX® culture adapted to the bulk composite (containing 7 wt % pyrite) in ~10 days, with biooxidation occurring most efficiently at pH 1.5–1.6 and 40 °C whilst the Fe medium concentration was identified as a less-controlling parameter. Flotation produced a 71% pyrite concentrate with total oxidation occurring after 14 days of biooxidation with 99% of Co leached. At pH 3, Co was effectively separated from Fe, however Ni and Cu were also present in the pregnant liquor solution and therefore required refining before production of cobalt hydroxide, the intermediate saleable product. This study shows that adopting a geometallurgical approach to tailings characterisation can identify if mine waste has commodity potential and how best to extract it therefore unlocking the potential for unconventional rehabilitation of AMD affected sites.

Enviro-economic assessment of thermochemical polygeneration from microalgal biomass

This paper presents a model-based assessment of the thermochemical conversion of microalgal biomass into Fischer-Tropsch liquids, hydrogen and electricity through polygeneration. Two novel conceptual plants are investigated, which are both comprised of the same operation units (gasification, water-gas shift, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, upgrading, separation, Rankine cycle and gas turbines) and mainly differ in the location of the water-gas-shift unit. Both plants are found to present a carbon efficiency greater than conventional biomass-to-liquid processes. The most profitable plants in terms of the saleable products yields ca. 0.23 m3 (1.4 bbl) of liquid transportation fuels (gasoline, kerosene and diesel), ca. 16 kg of hydrogen (716.8 scm), and ca. 1.55 × 109 J (430 kW·h) of electricity per 1000 kg of dried microalgae. The corresponding displaced fossil fuels could offset the carbon emissions by 0.56 kg of carbon dioxide for every kg of processed dried microalgae. Nevertheless, predicted break-even prices are lower than 40 USD per ton of dried microalgae in the base case scenario, which is at least 10 times cheaper than the current best scenario for microalgal biomass production. These low prices are a major impediment to the viability of these thermochemical polygeneration plants, albeit presenting a good potential toward cleaner liquid fuel production.

Strategy-as-Practice, Identity, and Capability to Perform in a Pluralist Context: A Case Study

Start-ups face triple challenges of constructing a salient identity, developing a saleable product, and forming a fully-functioned firm. The challenges become more complicated when those start-ups are situated in a pluralist context where they are subject to different, sometimes competing norms, values, and practices from more than one category, sector, and industry. Guided by a strategy-as-practice lens, we set to understand such an intricate process of how start- ups in a pluralist context form their identities while building capability to perform over the course of emergence. Based on a case study of a start-up at the intersection of technology and insurance, we found that start-ups engage in a series of practice to form an identity, sketch a product, and leverage upon their strategic decisions at pre-launching, launching, and post-launching phase. These practices constitute an interconnected process as start-ups manoeuvre different identity claims to build up their competitive advantage prior to scale up. We seek to contribute to the literature of strategy-as-practice, identity formation, and organizations in a pluralist context.

Contrasting effects of operating conditions and biomass particle size on bulk characteristics and surface chemistry of rice husk derived-biochars

In this study, the slow pyrolysis of rice husk was conducted by using a split-tube furnace under a nitrogen environment to investigate the influence of various pyrolysis conditions and biomass particle sizes on products yield distribution as well as physicochemical characteristics and surface chemistry of produced biochars. Results revealed that temperature has a more pronounced influence on products yield compared to the other operational conditions. The biochar yield decreases from 57.13 ± 5.37% to 37.19 ± 2.05% and gaseous phase yield increase from 25.64 ± 0.93% to 42.50 ± 4.58% with temperature increase from 300 °C to 700 °C. The surface chemistry of produced biochar varies widely as the distribution of different functional groups on its surface influenced by operational conditions and biomass particle size; above 500 °C the intensity of FTIR vibrational peaks reduces abruptly. FTIR, SEM, elemental composition and surface area results indicate that biochar synthesized under higher pyrolysis temperature, extended retention time and, lower heating and gas flow rates with fine biomass particle size has utility as a potential C-sequestration and remedial agent to mitigate global climate change and adsorption of environmental pollutants, respectively. Furthermore, biochar has potential application as a renewable solid bio-fuel source due to higher calorific values. A cost-benefit analysis indicates that the viability of biochar saleable product system is more economical with an annual profit of 138,533$ for the low scenario, when the presumed unit processes 2500 tons y−1 of biomass. In a comparison to other presumed scenarios, this system is more feasible in areas where low-cost RH biomass waste is available abundantly such as in rice production and processing areas. The profitability of this system increases further by accounting pyrolysis-gas energy value that reduces operational cost. For the optimization of biochar economical yield with desired properties, this work provides insight knowledge.

ELEMENTS OF TECHNOLOGY FOR GROWING LETTUCE IN IRRIGATED CONDITIONS OF THE VOLGA DELTA

The article presents the results of research on the development of elements of the cultivation technology of original varieties of lettuce in irrigated conditions of the Volga delta aimed to provide the citizens with vitamin products of own production within early-spring and autumn periods. The prospective grades of lettuce are selected: Miret RZ (Iceberg variety), Bacio RZ (Romen variety), Anthony RZ (Lollo Rossa variety) and Sigal RZ (Frisse variety). It was defined the seeding time; periods of planting of seedlings in open field and cut-off of saleable products. The highest yield, in average 31,1-33,5 t/ha, was received by Iceberg and Romen varieties of lettuce. For all the planting times, it was registered the high marketability of the produced output – for the Romen and Iceberg varieties – 98%, for the Lollo Rossa and Frisse varieties – 96%. According to the results of the chemical analysis, it was found that all varieties with the summer planting on the average accumulated less of dry matter by 6,12% and the amount of sugar by 39,87%, and had more value of vitamin C by 47,27% and nitrates by 103 mg/kg. The highest level of profitability of 407,8% was received on the cultivation of the Romen variety with the early-spring seeding. Due to their high taste properties, quality and external appeal produced lettuce products are very unique and in demand on the market.

Predictability of lean product, bone, and fat trim in beef carcasses from Costa Rica

Data from 292 hot fat trimmed carcasses derived from Costa Rican cattle were used to predict yield of fabricated boneless, closely-trimmed, high-valued cuts (BVS, by weight and percentage); yield of total saleable product (TSP, by weight and percentage); and percentage yields of bone and trim fat. Backfat thickness was not significantly associated with weight of BVS or TSP. Carcass weight explained 93.7% and 95.9% of the total variation in weight of BVS and TSP, respectively. Equations for predicting percentage yields of BVS and TSP showed little predictive efficacy. Conversely, the greater precision of the equations selected to predict the quantity (kg) of BVS or TSP, offers a practical alternative of using them in hot fat trimmed carcasses.

Understanding the Electrochemical Behavior of Di-Sodium Carboxymethyl Trithiocarbonate (Orfom® D8) Depressant on Copper Metal and Chalcopyrite Surfaces

This study shows the behavior of di-sodium carboxymethyl trithiocarbonate (Orfom® D8) depressant, an organic depressant used in the depression of copper in the differential separation of chalcopyrite-molybdenite during flotation to produce two saleable products. Fundamental electrochemical findings on possible adsorption modes by which the Orfom® D8 depressant adsorbs onto the target mineral surface are reported. Results show the use of Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Chronoamperometry as useful techniques in the evaluation of mechanistic interaction of Orfom® D8 depressant. The study compares how Orfom® D8 depressant adsorbs onto copper and chalcopyrite surfaces. The experimental responses were fitted to an equivalent circuit using data obtained from Nyquist and Bode plots to model the system. Information on the kinetic mechanisms (oxidation and reduction) were obtained by analyzing the capacitive responses on the phase spectra. The mechanism of adsorption of the Orfom® D8 on the substrate surfaces support a controlling mechanism via diffusion or charge transfer at either high or low potential. Results corroborate UV-Vis, Zeta-Potential, FT-IR and XPS measurements reported elsewhere.

Communicating sustainability: Curating the ‘Making it Real’ installation, Trinity Leeds

Abstract With growing drives towards greater sustainability within the retail sector and growing requirement to conform to existing and emerging legislation, companies from ostensibly disparate sectors face the common challenge of encouraging the reduced consumption of saleable products, while simultaneously maintaining financial prosperity. Initially focused on knowledge exchange between the energy and water utilities and fashion retailers, TRANSFER (Trading Approaches to Nurturing Sustainable consumption in Fashion and Energy Retail) is now working together with a diverse group of large and SME (small- and medium-sized enterprises) retailers from a number of sectors, with the aim of successfully addressing this paradox. Combining the experiences of our commercial partners with academic expertise from a team of psychologists, fashion and management experts from the University of Sheffield and University of the Arts, London, TRANSFER is also investigating how efforts to promote sustainable consumption within retail are received and responded to by consumers. In fulfilling the project aims we hope to foster a more complete understanding of how retail sector initiatives can be successfully designed and implemented in order to have a positive impact on both retailers and their customers. This article provides a summary of the TRANSFER ‘Making it Real’ installation, held at Trinity Leeds shopping centre, (February 2015). This innovative, interactive exhibition was conceived of and developed upon the basis of discussions held with TRANSFER partners at a commercial partner workshop held in April 2014. TRANSFER is a knowledge exchange project funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) Retail Sector Initiative 2013 (ES/L005204/1).

The Cornell Kitchen: Housing and Design Research in Postwar America.

The Cornell Kitchen (1950-55) was produced at Cornell University by a multidisciplinary team with expertise in home economics, engineering, architecture, and psychology. It promised to deliver rational design, functional principles, aesthetic appeal, and emotional satisfaction in one prefabricated, easy-to-install package. This article sets out the kitchen's history from its design to its field-testing phase to its impact on postwar kitchens. It argues that the kitchen represents an important effort to approach housing in a more scientific way; scientific methods were deployed to understand both the physical and socio-psychological problems of dwelling. The project also sought to introduce a specific model for leveraging housing research into the real world, partnering with industry to mass produce scientific designs. Social scientific methods were hence used to create not only more livable but also more saleable products in an effort to appeal to manufacturers and consumers alike.