Russian Periodicals Research Articles

Антиклерикальный дискурс в современной российской науке

One can often read about the religious revival that came about in Russia after the collapse of Soviet power, both in the media and in scientific literature. According to opinion polls, the majority of Russians are believers, mostly orthodox Christians. The Russian state clearly patronizes religion, at least some specific ("traditional") religions. In socio-political discourse, the prevailing view is that religion is a good thing, and if sometimes religion is a source of problems, it is associated with some deviations from the norm, a perversion of the very essence of religion. This point of view can easily be found in Russian scientific periodicals. However, a critical attitude towards the growing role of religion in Russia is also often expressed in Russian science. The article highlights the main reasons for the dissatisfaction of scholars with the current state of affairs. It is also shown that such works have no influence on the religious situation in Russia. Although anti-clerical sentiments are quite clearly expressed in Russian science, they do not fall into the socio-political discourse, since there is simply no such force in Russia that could consistently promote the principle of secularism. In search of an additional electoral resource and a replacement for the Soviet ideology, the authorities did everything to enhance the importance of religion and strengthen the authority of religious leaders. As a result, today, despite the fact that the real level of religiosity of the population is apparently much lower than is commonly believed, politicians (even opposition ones) are not ready to openly doubt the positive role of religion, fearing PR problems.

<i>The Last Day</i> of creation. M. Naimy’s mystical manifesto

The article is devoted to the mystical manifesto The Last Day (1963) of the Lebanese novelist, playwright and journalist Mikhail Naimy (1889–1988). The author suggests that Naimy, under the spell of classical Russian literature, attempted an audacious experiment: by successfully combining the totality of concepts of Dostoevsky’s The Dream of a Ridiculous Man [ Son smeshnogo cheloveka] with the traditional mythologemes of Sufi poetry, this graduate of the Poltava theological seminary overcomes mystical imagery, and in doing so postulates human impotence in the face of the Nietzschean ‘eternal recurrence’ and the ineffable nature of true the ophanies. The article demonstrates the innovative character of The Last Day, a novel that stands apart from the works of other Pen League members: while Gibran’s The Prophet seeks to infantilise a religious myth, Naimy’s objective is to bring mythology back into the 20th-c. Middle Eastern literary discourse and reimagine it using the categories of contemporary existential philosophy. The study opens with a short biography, covering Naimy’s Russian and American periods.

“Russian Bear” in the Spanish-Language Media Discourse

The article examines the role of the bear metaphor in the Spanish-language political discourse. The relevance of the study is due, firstly, to the intensification of cooperation between Russia and Latin American countries, the effectiveness of which can be influenced by stereotypes and political symbols. Secondly, the growing popularity of the use of zoomorphic metaphors by the mass media. One of the unofficial symbols of Russia, which is often addressed by both traditional media and social media, is the bear. The Russian Bear metaphor is now widely used in both Russian and foreign periodicals and cartoons. The purpose of this research is to identify the specifics of the representation of the image of Russia as a bear in the Ibero-American political mass-media discourse. The source for the analysis is a Spanish-language media discourse (cases: the 2014 Ukrainian crisis, the Venezuelan crisis, Russias military operation in Syria, Russias interference in the elections in Mexico). The scientific novelty of the study is that for the first time in the Russian-language scientific literature, the features of the use of the bear metaphor by Latin American media and social media are examined. The author concludes that the metaphor Russian Bear is used both in the internal political symbolic struggle and in the foreign policy discourse. The specifics of the use of the bear metaphor in Latin America are mainly determined by political orientations: for example, the left traditionally considers Russia as an ally, appealing to such meanings of the bear metaphor as strength, justice, and the ability to become a defender against aggressors. In turn, their opponents use a bear metaphor to label left-wing politicians as traitors to the national interest. In this context, the image of a Bear serves as a symbolic border guard. The bear metaphor can be used to create an image of an ally and defender, as well as an enemy. The Ibero-American media turn to the bear metaphor mainly in the headlines and subheadings of materials devoted to Russian foreign policy, which allows them to draw readers attention to the topic under consideration.

Landscape conditions for the development of early Russian cities in the medieval period in the Upper Volga region of the Volga-Caspian route

The main goal and objective of the work performed were to study the landscape conditions that shaped the Old Russian cities in the Upper Volga region in the medieval period. A paired comparison analysis of historical, archaeological, and geographical materials, along with the compilation of a series of medium-scale maps of the landscape, provincial and zonal allocation of early Russian cities, made it possible to identify the landscape characteristics of the early Russian city development and the establishment of a settlement structure in their immediate vicinity in the Old Russian period, as well as the development and the specific features of the establishment of first urban cultural-landscape complexes. The work was carried out at two hierarchical levels: for the entire Upper Volga segment and the key areas. For the key sections of the Old Russian Upper Volga cities, original maps of Restored Landscapes, Edaphotopes were compiled; and based on this data, the periodization of the formative processes and development of urban landscapes was identified (from both, the historical and the landscape perspective), and the structure of the urban (cultural-historical) landscapes during main chronosections was mapped. The most detailed research was performed for the city of Yaroslavl, selected as a model territory for the entire region.

Cultural aspects of the study of choreographic interpretations of I. Stravinsky's ballet “The Rite of Spring”

The study of the cognitive process of recognising images (signs) that characterise the content component or emotion is necessary for artistic communication. On the one hand, an interpreter is a representative of a specific society, ethnos, a linguistic personality, a communicant in the historical and modern aspects. On the other hand, in the centre of the ballet is a human with his actions, attitude to other characters, thoughts, feelings and peculiarities of plastic intonations. Since artistic knowledge belongs to the human personality, it has a certain historical, cultural, including social, spacious-hour context. During the “Russian period” of creativity I. Stravinsky created more than twenty works of various genres. The research area does not include the folklorebased “Tale about the Fox, the Rooster, the Cat and the Ram” (1916), “The Tale of the Fugitive Soldier and the Devil, Read, Played and Danced” (1918), in which, along with singing, there was the choreographic action. One of the criteria for selecting material for research is the opportunity to see the choreographic solution of the original versions of the ballets created at Diaghilev's theatre-enterprise. Choreographic reconstructions of “Tales ...” and “Tales of a Soldier” were not undertaken. These scores were not as much in demand by choreographers as the four compositions regarded.

Characteristics of students’ academic adaptation at different levels of education in Russia

Introduction. The relevance of the study is conditioned by the need to find effective ways of adaptation due to changing conditions of education and personality development, as well as to inclusion of students with various educational needs and capabilities in the educational process, including those with disabilities (health limitations) and chronic diseases. Currently, there is no conceptual and systematic elaboration of theoretical provisions and experimental research in the field of academic adaptation. Materials and methods. The materials of the study are articles from Russian periodicals. The research method is theoretical analysis of the problem of academic adaptation at different levels of education. Results of the study. Major studies of academic adaptation in Russia are focused on the problems of determining its criteria, age specificity, factors and conditions for successful adaptation, the development of a diagnostic tool, its characteristics in inclusive education, etc. The specificity of academic adaptation at different levels of education is associated with gaining experience of adaptation and psychological development of a student. The determinants of academic adaptation differ depending on the educational level. In the conditions of preschool education the determinants are games and the experience of interaction with peers and adults, psychosomatic development; in the conditions of primary education the determinants are communication skills, educational motivation, interaction with the teacher; in the conditions of secondary education the determinants are correspondence of the educational process organization with characteristics and capabilities of students, interaction with peers and adults; in the conditions of special professional education the determinants are psychophysiological characteristics of students, personality factors (academic motivation, self-reflection), interpersonal factors. Discussion and conclusion. Analysis of academic adaptation as a multicomponent phenomenon makes it possible to develop means of its optimization and to create conditions for children and adults’ academic success in the educational system. Within the context of modern education it is important to study students’ academic adaptation in an inclusive educational environment, the development of the concept of academic adaptation as a process of successive change of its foundations, factors and mechanisms at different educational levels.

Phatic Speech Diachrony: Editor’s Welcome Speech in Russian Popular Science Journalism of the First Half of the 18th Century

Early journalistic texts are important for a productive study of modern media texts communicative potential. The etitor – reader interaction patterns, in this case, must be considered diachronically. Modern popular science media texts show the genetic similarity with those of the early days of Russian periodicals. The research data and illustrative material have changed, but the composition, stylistics, manifestation of the author's personality, and the general intonation remain the same. The academic journal The Notes of the St. Petersburg Vedomosti (1728–1742) was the first Russian popular science periodical intended for readers who wanted to acquire knowledge about the world. The publishers of The Notes were well aware that interaction with the audience plays the most important role in articles of various information types. Since 1729 in the annual greetings to the reader (the modern "editor’s welcome speech"), phatic speech served as a powerful means of establishing contact with the audience. The phatic potential of the editor’s welcome speech provided the traditional combination of pleasure and usefulness, simplicity and accessibility of presentation. The main phatic features of the editor’s welcome speech included: an easy-going manner of conversation with the reader, the effect of personality-oriented conversations (friendly "you"), expression of concern about the reader’s interests in combination with information value and self-esteem, joking tone and intention to create a favorable communication atmosphere, formation of the friendly circle and association with the audience.

Aviation psychology: development stage in science and education

Introduction. Aviation psychology is a sphere of psychology that makes a significant contribution to ensuring aviation safety. The changes taking place at different levels of aviation psychology methodology require prompt reflection and critical assessment for prognostication of its further development. The purpose of this paper is to study the current stage of aviation psychology development in science and education, based on the materials from foreign and Russian sources. Materials and methods. The research materials represent a corpus of articles of foreign and Russian periodicals, collections of applied research conferences, monographs, and training toolkits. The research method represents the analysis of aviation psychology development directions, along with the consideration of peculiarities of the Russian aviation psychology development. Results. Aviation psychologists investigate the causes of aviation accidents caused by the human factor, improve the methods of psychological selection and simulator training, resolve the problems of optimisation of aircraft-specific work and find prerequisites for efficient operation of unmanned aerial vehicles in the conditions of the technological progress in the aerospace industry. Aviation psychology is taught at specialised higher education institutions and aviation training centres. Aviation psychology is in possession of inexhaustible cognitive resources for vocational guidance of young people. Conclusion. The current state of development of aviation psychology in science and education makes it possible to solve the pressing tasks aimed at increasing the reliability of aviation as a defence transport system. Most publications are related to engineering and psychological tasks involved in securing flight safety in the context of cockpit and control equipment ergonomics design, information support for pilots; improving the methodology of flight- and ground training of pilots based on digital technologies; development of interfaces for operators of remotely piloted aircraft. Russian aviation psychology is characterised by the orientation towards cultivating the cultural, historical, and moral foundations of professionalism in aviation.

Закат империи Цин: от традиционализма к конституционализму (по материалам российской печати)

Introduction. The purpose of this study is to describe significant historical events that have transformed the foundations of Chinese statehood, and to emphasize the peculiarities of their reflection in the Russian periodicals. The article presents the characteristics of the Qing Empire’s last decade of existence. This topic is relevant in the study of both world and national history, since the monarchical system in Russia during this period was also experiencing a profound crisis. Methods and materials. Based on the principle of historicism, the dialectical method of scientific knowledge was applied. The systematic and comparative methods made it possible to combine and compare various publications within one research project. Publications of Russian magazines and newspapers of various ideological orientations, aimed at mass and elite readers, are used as a historical source. Among them are magazines “Vestnik of Asia” and “News of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs” for a professionally trained reader, as well as literary and political (“Northern Notes”, “Russian Thought”, “Vestnik of Europe”) and historical and literary (“Vestnik of Foreign Literature”) publications of a moderately liberal orientation. Such popular science (with a literary and literary-political trend) magazines as “Russian wealth”, “The whole world”, “Vestnik Znaniya”, “The world” propagandized the achievements of European civilization, including the positive results of reforms held in China on the European model, among the broad strata of the Russian population. The largest amount of information about reforms in China and calls to carry out or, on the contrary, prevent such transformations in Russia, is contained in newspapers of various ideological orientations, such as “Russian Banner”, “St. Petersburg Vedomosti”, “Speech”, “Pravda” and “Neva Star”. Analysis. The articles containing information on the reasons and content of the reform activities of the Qing dynasty were analyzed. The role of Russian periodicals in the formation of ideas of various social groups about the political, socio-economic changes taking place in China is shown. Political and socio-economic problems that have analogies in the Russian Empire are emphasized. Results. The idealization of the Chinese culture of the past centuries is now a thing of the past. In the pages of newspapers and magazines, the image of China was quickly transformed. Despite the irregular and haphazard flow of information and the borrowing of subjective assessments of authors from foreign publications, representatives of various Russian ideological trends fought among themselves, using subjects from the life of modern China as examples. China’s movement from traditionalism to constitutionalism was of the greatest interest to the Russian progressive public. Key words: Qing Empire, reforms in China, Xinhai Revolution, Russian Empire, image of China, Russian periodicals.

A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF CONVERSIONS IN KAZAKHSTAN

Kazakh society went through such policies as Russification and Christianization during the Russian occupation period, atheism during the Soviets period, and religious revival after its independence. After the independence, missionary work of the Christian religion along with Islam increased. As a result of the missionary activities that are increasing today, Kazakhs who have changed their religion have started to appear in the society. This research explores the Kazakhs who changed their religion as a result of the intensive missionary work that emerged after independence from a sociological perspective. Then, the qualitative research method of sociology was used to investigate the current and complex events of religious change. There are three (complementary) techniques that we have used in qualitative research. They are: Interview, document examination and observation. In our research, 25 individuals were interviewed and personal information about them was provided. The process of changing religion and the reasons they changed religion were examined.

AGRICULTURE IN THE INTERFLUVE OF DNIESTER AND IKVA AT OLD RUSSIAN PERIOD ACCORDING TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDINGS

The article sums up the results of archaeological investigations of the settlements of South Volyn (the territory around annalistic Danyliv town) and Western Podillia (the territory of sites complex of Zbruch cultural center, annalistic Terebovlia). Authors conducted generalization of findings of agriculture implements, white straw crops remains and supplemented source base. During archaeological investigations of the settlements and fortified settlements of Western Podillia and South Volyn at the end of 20th — beginning of 21th centuries scientists discovered 64 metal objects connected with agriculture found at 14 sites and palaeoethnobotanical materials at 11 sites (table 1; fig. 1). Functionally metal objects divide into tools connected with land cultivating: tips on plowing tools (4), coulter (2) (fig. 2), hoes (3) and shovels ironing (4) (fig. 3); and the tools for harvesting: sickles (33; fig. 6) and scythes (18; fig. 7). Only one palaeoethnobotanical complex from 11 sites is of interest to statistics (table 2; fig. 5).
 Agriculture analysis is conducted according to the process: from land cultivating to preservation and harvest processing. Plowing tools are represented by developed tips types maximally similar to tusks. Findings of coulters prove existence of the most efficient tools of plough type for plowing. Set of ironings for shovels and hoes represents kitchen gardening and horticulture.
 One full paleoethnobotanical spectrum connected with the region is derived which helps to characterize grain farming and spectrum indicators resemble early Slavic. At the same time indicators of efficient capricious white straw crops are rather substantial and that proves high level of tillage.
 Presence of sickles and scythes is an undoubted proof of local agriculture. For harvest preserving some special grain pits were used.
 The survey of materials concerned with agriculture proves its high level. Further thorough and combined investigations will give an opportunity to refine these conclusions and place and role of agriculture in life of ancient communities in the interfluve of Dniester and Ikva at Old Russian period.

Coins as decoration and element of the Tatar traditional costume in the XIX – XX centuries

This article discusses the historical-culturological component of coins in jewelry and women's costume of the Volga Tatars in the XIX – XX centuries. The subject of this research is the coins of the tsarist, Soviet and modern Russian periods, which in one way or another were used as a decorative element in the Tatar national costume and jewelry. Research methodology is comprised of the general scientific and private scientific, such as culturological analysis, empirical experience of the author in jewelry restoration, and interview. The article relies on iconographic materials, jewelry, as well as essays and testimonies of the eyewitnesses. The scientific novelty lies in the thematic selection of sources and information, analysis and comparison of the facts. The author touches upon previously unstudied technical and technological aspects in preparation and processing of coins for their use as decoration. The article reveals the specificity of using coins for decorative purposes, provides information and hypotheses based on the sources that describe the use of coins in costume decoration. The author is first to carry out the classification of coins depending on the method of fixation, perforation and elements of the costume. The article describes the method of historical dating based on the technical and technological methods of processing of coins for application in jewelry.

Родительские правомочия по определению и изменению имени, отчества и фамилии детей: преемственность подходов в советской и российской правовых системах

Using the example of parental powers to determine and change the name, patronymic and surname of children, the article examines the regularity of the formation and development of the institution of personal non-property rights and responsibilities of parents in Russia. The author describes the legal situation of parents and children established in the monarchic period of Russian history by 1917. Issues such as the prerequisites for the establishment of the legal institution of the branch of family law in the Soviet legal system and the nature and causes of changes in the legal status of children depending on the legality of birth have been raised. The rights and duties of parents, differences in the legal status of men and women, and the influence of marital status and other circumstances were considered. The main sources of the study were normative legal acts and judicial practice of the Soviet and Russian periods of the history of the national state and law. The study concluded that a comprehensive approach had been developed in Soviet family law to regulate parental authority to determine and change the children’s first name, patronymic and surname. The modern Russian legal system has adopted rules establishing parental authority to determine and change the children’s first name, patronymic and surname of the Soviet legal system.

PUSHKIN AND CHINA

The literary heritage of Alexander Pushkin is well known to a wide range of readers. A line in a letter to Count A. Benckendorff, written in January 1830 and in which Pushkin asks permission to let him go to China, attracts attention. The purpose of the article is to try to find out what reasons prompted Pushkin to make such a request. It is essential to understand the age during which the poet lived. The fascination with Chinese culture came to Russia from France, which significantly impacted Russia’s life in the 18th–19th centuries. Chinese goods, the so-called Chinese rarities, began to appear in Russia even during Peter I’s reign, who often gave orders to buy them for the St. Petersburg Kunstkamera. Exotic things from China were delivered to St. Petersburg by caravans from Beijing through Siberia and the Urals or by sea on ships of the East India Company through Western Europe. Empress Catherine II set the fashion for interiors in the Chinese style: the Chinese Palace (1762–1768) appeared in Oranienbaum; Chinese buildings, the largest complex of buildings in the Chinese style, appeared in Tsarskoe Selo. There, in Tsarskoe Selo, in 1811, Emperor Alexander I established the Imperial Lyceum, in which Alexander Pushkin studied, and where, undoubtedly, the poet’s first encounter with the Middle Kingdom occurred. At this time, Russian periodicals also paid much attention to China. In them, articles about the trade of Europeans in China, about porcelain and silk factories, as well as about the wisdom of Chinese rulers and moral instructions for posterity began to be published. Pushkin read a lot and could not have been unaware of these publications. The acquaintance of Pushkin with monk Father Iakinf (N. Bichurin), an outstanding Russian sinologist, had a significant influence on the poet. Father Iakinf was appointed the Head of the ecclesiastic mission in Beijing in 1807 and lived there until 1821. As the examination of Pushkin’s library shows, the poet had Bichurin’s books about China. Also, he read Jean-Baptiste Du Halde’s book The General History of China in the Russian translation known at that time. As the study shows, Pushkin was interested in China and was going to visit it; however, fate had its own plans.

О некоторых особенностях формирования группы тобольских бухарцев в XVI–XIX веках

Purpose. The article considers the process of formation of the Tobolsk Bukharians – one of the groups of immigrants from Central Asia, who lived in the Tobolsk area in the 17th – 19th centuries. Results. The process of formation of a separate group of Bukharians is traced in a historical retrospective over a long period. It is shown that a significant Central Asian component entered the Siberian-Tatar community at an early stage of its formation. The main components were the Central Asian Muslim clergy and military service nobility, who became part of the upper stratum of the Siberian-Tatar community and disappeared into it, further adding to the category of service Tatars. This process was considered based on the example of a representative of the clergy, a native of Urgench, Seyyid Din-Ali Khodja, and the Central Asian people of the Kulmametevs. The initial stage of the process of resettlement and settling of immigrants from Central Asia in the territory around Isker (in the Russian period – Tobolsk) refers at least to the period of the Siberian Khanate. The system of settlement of the Tobolsk Bukharians during the 17th – 19th centuries is considered, data on the dynamics of the group’s size in the period under consideration are presented. It is shown that the Siberian Bukharians, as an ethnosocial group, were formed in the 17th century, and the status of Bukharians in the Moscow period was an ethnosocial one. The main Central Asian territories, from where they arrived in Tobolsk in the 17th century, have been identified. Conclusion. The features of the group of Tobolsk Bukharians have been identified, which include: early penetration into Siberia, joining a significant number of Islamic clergy, including Seyyids, as well as military service nobility during the period of the Siberian Khanate; joint residence of the Tobolsk Bukharians with other groups of the Turkic-Tatar population.

On the Legend of Eshil-Dzhami Mosque in Bakhchisarai

First time in scholarship, this paper has analysed the legend developing around the mosque called Eshil-Dzhami in Bakhchisarai, which is documented by the late eighteenth and nineteenth century travelogues. According to the legend, soon after the unification of the Crimea with Russia soldiers or Cossacks killed mullah of this mosque, thus making it desecrated, and the shrine was desolated. Since no testimony for the authenticity of this story survived, it probably expressed Crimean Tatars’ collective trauma because of the liquidation of the Crimean khanate rather than some historical episode. The story under analysis is an example of urban legends which appeared in Bakhchisarai in the Russian period. Folk tales developed around the monument, which history had been forgotten, and the travellers amended and popularised them. Later on, the legend of Eshil-Dzhami was used by anti-Russian propaganda in the periods of aggravation of relations between Russia and the West.

Становление деятельности по выявлению и сохранению историко-культурного наследия Сибири в дореволюционный период

The article is devoted to the identification and determination of the scientific significance of objects of historical and cultural heritage in Siberia in the pre-revolutionary period. The attitude to heritage is considered in the context of the analysis of the formation of the cultural and information environment. If in the 17th century. knowledge about pre-Russian Siberia was extremely scarce and fragmentary, and its heritage was interested only in terms of the value of the metals from which things were made, looted from ancient burial grounds, then after the decrees of Peter 1, the identification and study of the material remains of the past begins. The idea of the need to preserve the historical and cultural monuments of not only the peoples of Siberia, but also the Russian period was concretized and refined throughout the 19th century. The author examines the changes in the perception of the authorities and society about the significance of these material evidences of the Russian colonization of the trans-Ural territories by the example of the Siberian wooden fortresses. Most of the work on the identification and study of Siberian antiquities was carried out by the efforts of individual enthusiasts trying to preserve their remains in home collections and museums. The monuments of Siberian architecture, primarily wooden architecture, were in a deplorable state.

РЕЦЕПЦИЯ УКРАИНОФИЛЬСКИХ ИДЕЙ В ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННОЙ ПЕРИОДИЧЕСКОЙ ПЕЧАТИ ПЕРВОЙ ПОЛОВИНЫ 60-Х ГОДОВ XIX ВЕКА: ДЕМОКРАТИЧЕСКОЕ И ОХРАНИТЕЛЬНОЕ НАПРАВЛЕНИЯ

The article discusses how Russian periodicals responded to the Ukrainophilic views that were widely supported by Russian society during the early 1860s. The writers from the bilingual magazine “Osnova” (‘Basis’), particularly N.I. Kostomarov and P.A. Kulish, actively contributed to the achievements of the first generation of Ukrainophiles. The latter elaborated and presented their program aimed to preserve the Little Russia culture. The results of the analysis of the periodical sources show that the printed media of the period under study had polarized views on the national identity of Little Russia and divided into two factions: the democratic and protective ones. The democratic approach was led by the magazines “Sovremennik” (‘The Contemporary’) and “Otechestvennye Zapiski” (‘Annals of the Fatherland’) that considered the new provincial movement as the beginning of Narodism. The key supporters of the protective approach were the newspaper “Den’” (‘The Day’) and the magazine “Russkii Vestnik” (‘The Russian Bulletin’) that criticized the Ukrainian legacy adherents for separating the Russian nationalities. The stages of the evolution of the Russian periodicals’ attitude to Ukrainophiles were singled out. The main factors that influenced it were revealed. The consequences of the short-term prevalence of the Ukrainian “selfhood” ideology among publicists of the Russian Empire and its influence on the subsequent development of the Ukrainophilia movement were summarized.

Toropets in the Territorial and Administrative System of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Moscow State at the End of the 15th — 16th Century

The article is devoted to the peculiarities of the territorial, administrative and settlement structure of Toropets and Toropets uezd at the end of the 15th — 16th centuries. During the period when Toropets was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it was influenced by its peripheral position and its status as a state settlement, direct tax collection and at the same time maintaining relative independence. Communal traditions inherited from the Old Russian period were also preserved. The involvement of both urban and rural population in crafts activities was recorded, which influenced the formation of special territories (perevaras) in the Toropets uezd. The territories of volosts and a perevaras according to the scribe book of 1540 were localized. The territories of perevaras were within the borders of volosts. The inhabitants of the volosts and the townspeople of Toropets owned the side honey trees. In the city, the yards of shabry are recorded — the collective landowners, and in the county, on the territory of the crossing — the “nest” of settlements under a generalizing name, which served as a means of identifying the object of taxation. After Toropets joined the Moscow state, these features remain. However, the community land ownership and honey craft gradually decline throughout the 16th century.

Courage and Fear by Ola Hnatiuk

Reviewed by: Courage and Fear by Ola Hnatiuk Joseph W. Moser Ola Hnatiuk, Courage and Fear. Translated by Ewa Siwak. Boston: Academic Studies Press, 2019. 534 pp. Ola Hnatiuk's Courage and Fear starts out as Holocaust memoir by a second-generation Holocaust survivor, chronicling her mother's survival in hiding in Lemberg/Lwow/Lviv during the German occupation, 1941–1945, but the book is actually a large intellectual history of artists and the intelligentsia of Lemberg/Lwow/Lviv, meticulously researched and carefully translated from Polish into English by Ewa Siwak. After a few pages, it becomes clear that the book is much more—it is a work of literature, as Hnatiuk tries to tell the interwoven stories of various people in Lemberg/Lwow/Lviv between 1918 and 1944, and the book intentionally does not proceed chronologically. Reminiscent of Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace, the reader gains an insight into the historical, political, and ethnic upheavals in this fascinating city between the end of Austrian rule in 1918 and the second Soviet liberation in 1944. [End Page 126] The book was writt en for a Polish audience by a scholar who is an expert in Ukrainian Studies. The author, carefully navigating Polish-Ukrainian relationships in this period, writes against the ethnic prejudice that both groups have of one another, while also chronicling how such nationalist prejudices profoundly influenced decisions in this Eastern Galician city. She uses the Ukrainian terms of the cities that are now in Ukraine; thus she refers to Lviv by its Ukrainian name, no matter who was historically in charge of the city. Of course, this immediately shows how charged a topic like Lemberg/Lwow/Lviv can be, because identifying the city by its German name either refers to the Austrian period (1772–1918) or the German period (1941–1945), Lwow refers to the city's Polish (1918–1939) or Russian (1944–1991) period. The three large ethnic groups of the city in the period covered by this book were Polish and Ukrainian non-Jews and Jews who were mostly Polish-speaking. Despite the Austrian rule in the nineteenth century, Lviv retained its significance as a Polish-speaking city, where the elite spoke Polish, while the people in the surrounding rural areas where primarily Ukrainians and Ruthenians. The Jews assimilated from Yiddish to Polish, and German became the most important secondary language, as the Austrians allowed the city to operate in Polish primarily. With the rise of nationalism in the nineteenth century, Lviv was situated at the fault line of ethnic conflict between Poles and Ukrainians, both of whom harbored varying degrees of antisemitism. German (during the Austrian period and the Nazi occupation) and Russian after 1944 were also important languages, whose speakers exerted influence over the city. Hnatiuk exposes the ethnic prejudice that the various groups had against each other. The Poles oppressed the Ukrainian intelligentsia during the interwar period. The Soviets elevated Ukrainian and suppressed Polish in 1939 to divide and conquer the city, though they were not thrilled by Ukrainian exceptionalism that threatened to undermine the Russian hegemony prevalent in the Soviet Union. In 1941, the Germans elevated the non-Jewish Ukrainians over non-Jewish Poles while the vast majority of Jews in the city were murdered in pogroms in the city or through deportation to the Belzec extermination camp. Yet, non-Jewish Poles and non-Jewish Ukrainians helped some Jews survive in hiding or assisted in procuring false papers identifying Jews as either Poles or Ukrainians. After World War II, the Soviets expelled the Poles from Lviv, ensconcing the city firmly in the Ukrainian SSR. [End Page 127] The many stories in this book about artists and intellectuals who survive, and many who die, in the Holocaust, as well as the complex and constantly changing relationship that non-Jews had with the German Nazi occupiers as well as with officials during the periods of Soviet rule in the city illustrate how difficult it is to make any generalizations about this part of Eastern Europe. Instead, the book demonstrates how chaotic these times really were in Lviv and how individual survival hinged on luck and the on chaotic nature of the changing rulers...