Rum Distillery Research Articles

Combination of sequencing batch reactor and vertical flow treatment wetlands: A full-scale experience for rum distillery wastewater treatment in a tropical climate

Distillery wastewater is a difficult type of wastewater to treat because of its low pH (pH = 3.3), high chloride and sulfate content, high organic matter concentrations (3.2 gTSS/L, 6.8 gBOD5/L and 14.6 gCOD/L). Moreover, the rum production is intermittent over the season (5 months per year). The acidity of this type of wastewater, combined with the relatively underbalanced nitrogen concentrations, requires the addition of specific chemicals such as soda solution and urea, when a biological treatment technology is envisioned. In this full scale experiment, located in a tropical zone (Martinique island), the objective was to demonstrate the ability of treatment chain composed of a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) followed by vertical flow treatment wetlands (VFTWs). The objective was to use VFTWs for treatment polishing as well as sludge/water separation and sludge treatment over years. The VFTWs are planted with Heliconia psittacorum and Cyperus papyrus. The monitoring occurred during three rum production seasons. The treatment chain allows an overall average removal of TSS of 92% and 96% for organic matter (COD and BOD5). The average annual load applied to the filter in operation was 32 kgTSS/m²/y, which is equivalent to 78 kgTSS/m²/y over the distillation period. The applied load was too high for the plants tested and lead to plant death and surface clogging of the filters. Nevertheless, this experiment allowed specifying the way to operate the whole treatment plant as well as acceptable daily loads that should be applied on the VFTWs. Even if the operation of the filters and the selection of plants in a tropical climate still need to be optimized, this combination of intensive and extensive processes is an effective and sustainable nature-based solution for rum distillery wastewater treatment.

Bacteria as Potential Indicators of Heavy Metal Contamination in a Tropical Mangrove and the Implications on Environmental and Human Health.

Heavy metal (HM) exposure has been associated with human health diseases like cancer, kidney and liver damage, neurological disorders, motor skills, low bone density and learning problems. With the beginning of the industrialization, the heavy metals in high concentration contribute to putting on the risk the humans in the vicinity. Our study site is located in Cataño, Puerto Rico. This is a highly industrialized area. It is surrounded by a recreational park, a rum distillery, two thermoelectric factories, and was impacted by CAPECO (oil refinery) explosion in 2009. Las Cucharillas marsh is part of The San Juan Bay Estuary System, considered as a critical wildlife area. The mangrove marsh has three of the four mangrove species found in PR Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans and Rhizophora mangle. This study was aimed at seven different heavy metals: Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Mercury (Hg) and Copper (Cu). These metals at high concentrations are of human health concern due to their toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulative and bio magnification potentials. Contamination of surface sediments with HM affects the food chain, starting with marine organisms up to humans. The people who live near the contaminated area and the local fishermen are at high risk of exposure. Studies reveal that certain microorganisms can resist the toxicity of heavy metals even at high concentrations. Our study pretends to exploit the sensitive nature of some bacteria to HM and use them as bioindicators. The objective of this research is to assess the bacterial community on the mangrove marsh, identify these bacteria and correlate bacterial species with the type and concentration of the metals found on the site. Our preliminary results with the BIOLOG® identification were five bacteria that are: Carnobacterium inhibens, Cupriavidus gilardii, Enterococcus maloduratus, Microbacterium flavescens and Ralstonia pickettii. This study will continue with an assessment of the exposure of different concentrations of heavy metals to our identified bacteria and underlying the mechanisms of degradation, magnification and or bioconcentration of these heavy metals.

Hooked! Seductive Details in Soil Science

Hooked! Seductive Details in Soil Science

Characterization of Jamaican Agro-Industrial Wastes. Part II, Fatty Acid Profiling Using HPLC: Precolumn Derivatization with Phenacyl Bromide

This paper describes the determination of fatty acid composition of coffee, citrus and rum distillery wastes using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Lipid extracts of the waste samples are derivatized with phenacyl bromide and their phenacyl esters are separated on a C8 reversed-phase column by using continuous gradient elution with water and acetonitrile. The presence of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in quantifiable amounts in the examined wastes, as well as the high percentage recoveries, are clear indications that these wastes have potential value as inexpensive sources of lipids. The HPLC procedures described here could be adopted for further analysis of materials of this nature.

Characterization of Jamaican Agro-Industrial Wastes. Part I: Characterization of Amino Acids Using HPLC: Pre-column Derivatization with Phenylisothiocyanate

Jamaican agro-industries generate large quantities of wastes, which are either discarded or under-utilized. In order to evaluate the possible utilization of these wastes, it is necessary that the profiles of the major biochemical groups be developed. This paper describes the determination of the amino acid composition of coffee, citrus, and rum distillery wastes using a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method. Acid hydrolysates of the wastes are derivatized with phenylisothiocyanate. They are analyzed as their phenylthiocarbamyl derivatives and determined quantitatively using norleucine as the internal standard. The presence of all the 17 amino acids investigated, nine of which include those essential for animal nutrition, are observed in the samples investigated, suggesting a high quality of protein with implications in the formulation of animal feeds.

Application of distillery waste anaerobic digester effluent to St. Augustinegrass

Effluent that results from methane anaerobic digestion needs to be disposed of or utilized. The objective of this glasshouse study was to examine the effect of rum distillery anaerobic digester effluent application rate on St. Augustinegrass ( Stenotaphum secundatum Kuntze) growth and elemental uptake to determine the feasibility of land application. The initial application rates were 0, 0.22, 0.44, and 0.88 cm of the liquid effluent per week, equivalent to 0, 22, 44, and 88 g total solids (TS) per pot, respectively, for the first 4 months of the study. Because of apparent plant stress, effluent application was eliminated for the high application rate during the final 4 months of the experiment. Therefore, at the end of 8 months, effluent application totals were 0, 44, 88, and 88 g TS per pot, respectively for the four treatments. Since both of the two higher rate treatments received a total of 88 g TS per pot, treatments were designated as 0-[8mo], 44-[8mo], 88-[8mo], and 88-[4mo] to denote the time frame in which the total amount of effluent was applied. During the initial 4 months, St. Augustinegrass dry matter yield was more than 60% higher with the two lower application rates, 44-[8mo] and 88-[8mo], as compared with the higher 88-[4mo] application rate or the 0-[8mo] effluent control. By the end of the initial 4-month period, the high 88-[4mo] treatment had resulted in plant chlorosis and drying tissue and thus slightly lower cumulative dry matter yield than obtained with the control. During the second 4-month period, dry matter yield was similar for the 88-[8mo] and 88-[4mo] rates, but both were approximately one-half that obtained with the 44-[8mo] application rate. In general, uptake of measured elements increased with increased dry matter production. However, relative differences in K, Al, and Mn uptake appeared larger than observed with yield differences. As expected, soil concentrations of most elements measured were increased with effluent applications, especially K and Na. The addition of effluent, regardless of rate, raised soil pH from 6.5 to approximately 9, owing to increases in soil K, Na, Mg, and Ca levels. The data from this study suggest that the lowest effluent application rate, 44-[8mo] (equivalent to 0.22 cm week −1) may result in acceptable St. Augustinegrass growth. However, the apparent elemental buildup in the soil and the potential adverse effects on groundwater quality suggest that even lower rates may be necessary for longer-term continuous disposal of the distillery waste anaerobic digester effluent.

Survival of Vibrio cholerae in treated and untreated rum distillery effluents

The effect of treated (methane digestor) and untreated rum distillery effluent on Vibrio cholerae growth and activity was examined in microcosms under a variety of controlled conditions and in diffusion chambers with non-controlled conditions. Temperature and pH in the microcosms were the most critical parameters influencing bacterial density and metabolism. The high nutrient levels of both types of effluents allowed growth and activity of V. cholerae at pH below 6.6 and at temperatures above 45°C, conditions that normally invoke the viable but non-culturable state. The generation time of V. cholerae in both types of rum distillery effluent was half that reported for other microcosm studies. The growth rates as determined by viable and direct cell counts were always higher in untreated effluents; however, metabolic activity of V. cholerae in treated effluents was often higher than in untreated effluents. Under non-controlled conditions (diffusion chambers), V. cholerae showed no significant differences in survival or activity between treated and untreated effluents. Competition with other microbes in the effluent may reduce the effect that treatment has on the growth of V. cholerae. Survival rates for V. cholerae were higher than those reported earlier for ambient waters. Anaerobic digestion of rum distillery effluents alone was insufficient in reducing the potential microbial hazard and rum distillery effluents to tropical environments and/or public health.

Chemical and Decomposition Characteristics of Anaerobic Digester Effluents Applied to Soil

AbstractA study was conducted to determine the elemental concentrations of an effluent that resulted from the anaerobic digestion of rum distillery by‐products (also called molasses residue) and decomposition characteristics in soil as measured by CO2 evolution. For comparison, two additional effluents from the anaerobic digestion of swine wastes and bovine wastes were included (Susscrofa and Bos taurus, respectively). The carbon content of oven‐dry molasses residue and swine waste effluents were both approximately 250 g kg−1, whereas the bovine waste was 152 g kg−1. The molasses residue effluent sample had a greater K concentration on an oven‐dry basis than the swine or bovine waste materials. However, the concentrations of most other elements were higher in the swine waste effluent. In contrast, higher solute concentrations were found for most elements in the molasses residue effluent than in the swine waste effluent. An analysis of variance performed on total CO2‐C evolved after 20 d as well as at the end of the experiment (117 d) indicated an interaction between effluent source and rate. This was caused by the low amount of CO2 evolved from soil amended with the bovine waste effluent regardless of application rate. At day 20, cumulative CO2 evolution was higher with the molasses residue effluent than with the swine waste effluent; however, by day 117, only at the high application rate was CO2 evolution higher with the molasses residue. Lower application rates allow for proportionally more short‐term decomposition of the molasses residue and swine waste effluents than at higher rates. Although effluent sources result in different amounts of total evolution, between 40 and 50% of the total CO2 evolved may occur in the first 20 d.

Comparison of the in situ survival and activity ofKlebsiella pneumoniae andEscherichia coli in tropical marine environments

A near-shore coastal mangrove island receiving untreated sewage and a coastal cove receiving rum distillery effluent in Puerto Rico were examined for their ability to support survival and activity ofKlebsiella pneumoniae andEscherichia coli. Pure cultures of both bacteria were monitored for 96 hours in situ at both locations using membrane diffusion chambers.K. pneumoniae survived at all sites as measured by AODC and Coulter Counter direct counts. However, at the mangrove island less than 20% of theK. pneumoniae population was active (AODC) after the first 3 hours and less than 10% of this population was respiring (INT). In contrast, the coastal area which was receiving rum distillery effluent was able to maintain 40% of theK. pneumoniae population in an active state with 90% respiring. TheE. coli population declined by two orders of magnitude at the mangrove island, but remained unchanged at the rum distillery outfall. TheE. coli population had a higher proportion of active cells and respiring cells thanK. pneumoniae at all sites. At the rum distillery site, theE. coli population was remarkable in that 95% remained active and 99% were respiring. This study suggests that, when sufficient organic loading exists,E. coli, a "nonsurvivor," can overcome the bactericidal effects of tropical marine waters.K. pneumoniae, a "survivor," could survive under all conditions but could not maintain the activity or respiration that theE. coli population could, even when high organic loads were present. Morphological changes related to nutrient stress in the tropical marine environment were apparent inE. coli, but not inK. pneumoniae. Based on physiological activityE. coli is just as much a "survivor" asK. pneumoniae in tropical marine waters.

Anaerobic digestion of high-strength distillery wastewater (cane molasses stillage) in a fixed-film reactor

Methane fermentation of cane molasses stillage was studied using a 10 m 3 downflow fixed-film reactor packed with a plastic medium. The performance was particularly good for this type of substrate: load rate, 14·2–20·4 kg COD m −3 day −1; HRT, 3·3-2·5 days; biogas productivity, 6·5–8·4 m 3 m −3 day −1. Fermentation removed 85% to 97% for BOD and 60% to 73% for COD. To resolve the problems of seeding caused by the absence of conventional inocula (digesters), the use of methanogenic ecosystems from natural habitats was considered and applied. These experimental data have led to design and start-up of an industrial fixed biomass plant (1700 m 3) for the anaerobic treatment of cane molasses stillage (rum distillery).

Comparison of four membrane filter methods for fecal coliform enumeration in tropical waters

Four membrane filter methods for the enumeration of fecal coliforms were compared for accuracy, specificity, and recovery. Water samples were taken several times from 13 marine, 1 estuarine, and 4 freshwater sites around Puerto Rico, from pristine waters and waters receiving treated and untreated sewage and effluent from a tuna cannery and a rum distillery. Differences of 1 to 3 orders of magnitude in the levels of fecal coliforms were observed in some samples by different recovery techniques. Marine water samples gave poorer results, in terms of specificity, selectivity, and comparability, than freshwater samples for all four fecal coliform methods used. The method using Difco m-FC agar with a resuscitation step gave the best overall results; however, even this method gave higher false-positive error, higher undetected-target error, lower selectivity, and higher recovery of nontarget organisms than the method using MacConkey membrane broth, the worst method for temperate waters. All methods tested were unacceptable for the enumeration of fecal coliforms in tropical fresh and marine waters. Thus, considering the high densities of fecal coliforms observed at most sites in Puerto Rico by all these methods, it would seem that these density estimates are, in many cases, grossly overestimating the degree of recent fecal contamination. Since Escherichia coli appears to be a normal inhabitant of tropical waters, fecal contamination may be indicated when none is present. Using fecal coliforms as an indicator is grossly inadequate for the detection of recent human fecal contamination and associated pathogens in both marine and fresh tropical waters.

AEROBIC DIGESTION OF RUM WASTES TO ENHANCE THE MARINE FOOD CHAIN

An experimental study has been conducted on the reduction of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and the simulataneous production of marine organisms by means of aerobic digestion of wastes from a rum distillery (mostos or rum slops) The results indicate that rum wastes can be reduced in BOD by aeration and agitation in sea water to less than 50% of the original. The resulting digestion products are suitable for growing brine shrimp (Artemia salina). The microorganisms produced appear to be natural marine organisms, and the brine shrimp are known to be valuable as a fish food. Thus this method should be beneficial to the marine food chain if the digestion products are disposed of in the sea, or it could be of possible use in marine aquaculture. Both the reduction of BOD and growth of biomass increase with pH up to a value of 8, with residence time, and with concentration of BOD and rum wastes up to a level of about 25percnt; rum waste. Toxic or inhibiting effects seem to occur at 50% rum waste. Rough estimates of digestor volumes and biomass production can be obtained based on feed conditions and the desired BOD reduction.

Survival of Candida albicans in tropical marine and fresh waters.

A survey of Candida albicans indicated that the organism was present at all sites sampled in a rain forest stream and in near-shore coastal waters of Puerto Rico. In the rain forest watershed no relationship existed between densities of fecal coliforms and densities of C. albicans. At two pristine sites in the rain forest watershed both C. albicans and Escherichia coli survived in diffusion chambers for extended periods of time. In near-shore coastal waters C. albicans and E. coli survival times in diffusion chambers were enhanced by effluent from a rum distillery. The rum distillery effluent had a greater effect on E. coli than on C. albicans survival in the diffusion chambers. These studies show that neither E. coli nor C. albicans organisms are good indicators of recent fecal contamination in tropical waters. It further demonstrates that pristine freshwater environments and marine waters receiving organic loading in the tropics can support densities of C. albicans which may be a health hazard.

Título en español

La industria de ron de Puerto Rico produce alrededor de 16,000 millones de hectolitros de mosto (flema) al año, mayormente cerca de la región en que se está estableciendo la industria arrocera. Se realizaron cuatro siembras consecutivas de arroz en las mismas parcelas para comparar el efecto de distintos niveles de mosto y de nitrógeno sobre la producción y composición foliar del arroz y en la condición del suelo. La producción de arroz aumentó con cada incremento de mosto de un promedio de 3,033 kg de arroz seco en cáscara por hectárea cuando no se aplicó mosto a 5,905 kg/ha cuando se aplicaron 240 hl de mosto por hectárea por semana y durante 12 semanas, empezando 2 semanas después de sembrarlo. Esta cantidad de mosto contiene un total de 215 kg de nitrógeno y 475 kg de potasio por hectárea y cosecha. La aplicación de nitrógeno en adición a 160 hectolitros de mosto por hectárea por semana no aumentó la producción sobre la obtenida mediante la aplicación de 240 hectolitros de mosto por hectárea y semana. La aplicación de mosto no afect6 el contenido en N, P, K, Ca y Mg de las hojas. El pH del suelo disminuyó según se aumentó el nivel de mosto de 7.15 cuando no se aplicó mosto a 6.3 cuando se aplicaron 240 hl. de mosto por hectárea y semana. Los tratamientos no afectaron el contenido en amonio cambiable en el suelo. Tanto el potasio cambiable en el suelo como el extraído con ácido nítrico aumentaron según aumentó la aplicación de mosto. Al finalizar las cuatro cosechas, el total de ambos aumentó de 313 kg de potasio por hectárea cuando no se aplicó mosto, a 699 kg/ha cuando se aplicaron 240 hectolitros de mosto por hectárea y semana. La cantidad de calcio y magnesio cambiable en el suelo no se afectó con la aplicación de mosto. Estos datos señalan que el mosto es una buena fuente de nitrógeno y de potasio para la producción de arroz. El mosto que se produce actualmente en la costa norte es suficiente para suplir todo el nitrógeno y el potasio para 2,100 ha (5,208 cuerdas) de arroz que puede distribuirse en el agua de riego.

Título en español.

Experimentos hechos para optimar la fermentación alcohó1ica de las mieles ricas demostraron deficiencias en nitrógeno y otros factores de crecimiento de las levaduras que afectan la eficiencia fermentativa de estas mieles. Estudios para corregir estas deficiencias indican que la miel final de caña contiene la mayoría de estos nutrimentos, inclusive vitaminas y demás factores de crecimiento, excepto el nitrógeno. La rapidez máxima de fermentación y el máximo contenido alcohó1ico se consiguieron preparando la semilla de levadura en miel final y añadiendo sulfato amónico como fuente de nitrógeno. El residuo de la destilación de ron también fue una buena fuente de nutrimentos. El extracto de levaduras provee los nutrimentos necesarios, pero es un ingrediente relativamente costoso.

Survival and distribution of aeromonas hydrophila in near-shore coastal waters of Puerto Rico receiving rum distillery effluent

For a period of 1 year, monthly water samples were taken for estimates of Aeromonas hydrophila density at 6 sites in Ensenada de Boca Vieja near San Juan, Puerto Rico. Five sites were associated with the effluent plume of the world's largest rum distillery, the sixth site was 177 m upcurrent. Fifteen water quality parameters were monitored concurrently with A. hydrophila estimates. The toxic and stimulatory nature of the effluent made correlations with any physicochemical parameter difficult. However, a significant multiple regression was obtained against density of A. hydrophila using temperature, total phosphorus, total organic carbon and orthophosphates. Densities of A. hydrophila were always higher in the effluent plume and usually highest at the site closest to effluent outfall. Suspensions of A. hydrophila placed in diffusion chambers at the effluent point source not only survived, but gradually increased in density, while 500 m upcurrent densities of A. hydrophila in diffusion chambers rapidly declined. Significant differences in A. hydrophila density between the two sites could be detected after only 18 h. The diffusion chamber studies confirm natural correlations with water quality that indicate A. hydrophila densities in marine habitats can become elevated under the appropriate conditions. Higher densities of other potential pathogens e.g. Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio cholerae, were also observed in the rum distillery effluent plume.

Título en español

En dos pruebas de digestibilidad por el métoda de diferencia, utilizando 4 toretes castrados y períodos de 5 días de recolección total de las heces, se evaluaron dos alimentos líquidos: Solub Mol (un producto comercial compuesto de 70% de fracciones solubles de estreptomicetos y 30% de melaza de caña, con 44.2% de materia seca (MS) (DM)] y mosto condensado de la destilación de ron, con 53.3% de MS. En la fase 1 de cada prueba la ración consistió de una mezcla de heno molido y el alimento líquido correspondiente, en las proporciones centesimales 55 heno: 45 Solub Mol 6 60 heno: 40 mosto. Las proporciones a base seca fueron 71 heno: 29 alimento líquido en ambas pruebas. Se restringió la ración a un 90% del consumo ad líbitum. En la fase 2 de cada prueba se eliminó al alimento líquido, manteniendo el suministro de heno igual que en la fase 1 . Se hallaron las siguientes digestibilidades medias en el Solub Mol: materia seca, 72.0 ± 2.2%; materia orgánica (OM) (MO), 71.1 ± 2.3%; calorías, 72.5 ± 2.2%; y proteína bruta (CP) (CP), 33.2 ± 2.4%. Los contenidos de energía digerible (DE) (ED) y proteína bruta digerible (COP) (DCP) en la DM (MS) fueron 3.22 kcal/g y 4.0%, respectivamente. Se estimó la digestibilidad verdadera de la CP en 58.3 ± 2.6%, correspondiendo a 7.1% de COP en la DM. El Solub Mol puede clasificarse como una fuente concentrada de energía digerible, pero su fracción nitrogenada es de baja digestibilidad. Se determinaron las siguientes digestibilidades medias en el mosto condensado: materia seca, 50.3 ± 2.6%; material orgánica, 43.7 ± 3.6%; calorías, 47.7 ± 3.7%; y proteína bruta, 40.6 ± 5.6%. Los contenidos de DE y COP en la DM del mosto fueron 1. 76 kcal/g y 3.5%, respectivamente. La digestibilidad real estimada de la CP fue de 75.4 ± 6.4%, correspondiendo a 6.5% de COP real en la DM . El mosto condensado es un suplidor módico de energía y proteína para los bovinos.

Título en español.

Experimentos sobre el crecimiento de levadura forrajera en mostos mostraron un aumento en el pH de los mismos durante las primeras 48 horas de crecimiento. Se alcanzaron rendimientos altos de levadura, obteniendo 10 gramos de levadura seca por litro de mostos, con un contenido en proteína de 32-40%. Las reducciones de BOD más altas se obtuvieron a las 72 horas, 55-64%. Los conteos de levadura se pudieron relacionar directamente con las reducciones en BOD; a más elevado el conteo, mayor la reducción de BOD obtenida. Se estudió además el efecto de la dilución, obteniendo conteos máximos a las 24- 48 horas y produciendo 5g/l de levadura seca en la dilución 1:1. Entre las diluciones estudiadas las reducciones de BOD más altas se obtuvieron con esta dilución. El efecto de sales nutritivas se exploró obteniendo los mejores resultados usando 0.15% N y 0.10% P. Un promedio de 72% en la reducción del BOD se obtuvo a las 48 horas de crecimiento. De todas las variables estudiadas, los mejores resultados se obtuvieron en mostos con nutrimentos, ya que la reducción del BOD se obtuvo en un tiempo de retención más corto.

Título en español.

Se estudió el potencial nutritivo del mosto como medio de cultivo para el crecimiento de hongos. Se obtuvo mejor crecimiento en mosto estéril que en el medio de cultivo recomendado para crecer estos hongos. De 11 cepas de hongo estudiadas resultó mejor la cepa H-13, Aspergillus phoenicis, aislada en nuestro laboratorio de mosto contaminado.

Título en español.

El mosto de destilerías de ron resultó útil para el cultivo de hongos cuyo micelio puede utilizarse como alimento suplementario para animales. Se obtuvieron reducciones altas en el BOD y azúcares totales del mosto. El contenido en nitrógeno bajó a medida que aumentó el rendimiento de micelio, indicando que el hongo lo utiliza para su crecimiento. Se observó un aumento en el pH del mosto cuando los hongos crecieron. De 12 cepas de hongos dos compararon favorablemente con la cepa control. Se observaron variaciones en el contenido proteico del micelio entre las cepas investigadas. Las reducciones en el BOD del mosto fueron proporcionales al rendimiento de micelio. Con las cepas que dieron mejores resultados se obtuvieron reducciones de 30-53% BOD al cabo de 7 días de crecimiento.