Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test Research Articles

Effects of multi-layer Ti3C2Tx nanosheets on compression strength and abrasion resistance of concrete

Concrete is a leader composite material for structural use in buildings, adaptable to all locations and circumstances in view of its properties such as versatility, durability, and performance. MXenes are new two-dimensional (2D) materials that are very promising for applications in many fields due to their layered structure and physicochemical characteristics. Focused on increasing the performance of concrete structures, this work proposed the reinforcement of concrete with the addition of very small amounts (0.02 wt-%) of MXenes consisting of multi-layer Ti3C2Tx nanosheets to improve compression and abrasion resistance. The reinforced concrete specimens were tested by uniaxial compression tests and rubber-wheel abrasion tests. The results obtained were compared with reference concrete prepared without any added nanosheets. The concrete with MXenes presented higher compression strength (15% higher) in relation to the reference samples after 3 days of molding. After 28 days, the average compression strength was 20.5% higher with Mxenes, but the difference at 28 days was not statistically significant. The rubber-wheel abrasion tests showed a tendency for reduced wear rates with Mxenes, but the difference was statistically significant only for the tests with larger abrasives. Differences in macroporosity of the concretes were not found to justify the improved performance with Mxenes. The main differences due to the Mxenes reinforcement were due a smoother microtopography. It was proposed that the mechanism responsible for obtaining smoother topography with MXenes was related to the lubricious nature of the Ti3C2Tx nanosheets, that can reduce interparticle friction when a transition of the paste flow to the thickening regime occurs, which is governed by boundary lubrication.

High-speed laser cladding: new developments for wear and corrosion protection

Fusion-bonded and low-diluted overlay welded coatings are frequently very thick (>1mm), which results in high material consumption (kg/m2) and expenses. High-speed laser cladding is a novel process, which can produce thin fusion-bonded and low-diluted coatings with high coverage rates and low heat input. Coating materials utilized in high-speed cladding have varied from soft Ni-based superalloys to harder martensitic stainless steels and base materials from low alloy steels to austenitic stainless steels. The ultimate objective has been to develop crack-free alternatives to environmentally hazardous hard-chrome plating. In this paper, high-speed laser cladding was used to fabricate relatively thin Ni-based coatings on various cast irons for corrosion protection and Ni-based hard-faced coatings reinforced with chromium (Cr3C2) and tungsten carbides (WC/W2C), for the first time, onto low-alloy structural and quenched & tempered steels for wear applications. Obtained coatings were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical (OM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Corrosion performances were explored in long-term salt spray tests. Mechanical and wear properties were tested with Vickers microhardness measurements and three-body dry-sand rubber wheel abrasion tests (RWAT). It was shown that soft low-diluted Ni-based coatings protected the cast iron base materials in salt spray tests. Ni-based hard-faced coatings with hardness up to 1200 HV1 exhibited high wear resistance in low-stress three-body abrasion better than hard-chrome plated coating, which was attributed to the high volume fraction of hard carbide reinforcements.

The properties of laser-clad coatings made of NiCrBSi alloy and recycled tungsten carbides

Tungsten carbide hard metals are one of the most known and successful powder metallurgical products used in environments where severe wear conditions prevail. Since tungsten belongs to the list of critical raw materials for the European Union (EU), its recycling is highly desirable. In this paper, recycled tungsten carbide powders fabricated by the zinc-reclaim process where mixed with NiCrBSi matrix and deposited with one-step laser cladding using a coaxial powder feeding on mild steel substrates. Prepared clads were tested in low-stress rubber wheel abrasion tests and compared with clads produced from commercial macrocrystalline (WC) and cast and crushed eutectoid WC/W2C reinforced clads. The results showed that recycled WC induced porosity in clads when produced with ‘production’ laser cladding parameters due to small carbide size resulting in poor wear performance. When laser-clad with lower heat input and productivity, pore-free clads with excellent wear performance were obtained.

Wear Resistance of Fe–Cr–C Hardfacing Deposited by Flux-Core-Double-Wire GTAW in Rubber Wheel Abrasion Test

Abstract The wear resistance of metals can be improved by using the hardfacing technique. Different processes can produce it with the desirable microstructures and mechanical properties. This study presents an original method, flux-core-double-wire of gas-shielded tungsten arc welding, in which wires of different compositions are used simultaneously to obtain different microstructures. The deposition was controlled through the following parameters: welding speed, deposition current, standoff distance, torch angle, and pulse frequency of wire feed. Four coatings were deposited on AISI 1020 steel substrate by combining the cored wires: Fe–Cr–C, Fe–Cr–C–Nb, Fe–Cr–C–Mo–Nb, and Fe–Cr–C–Mo–Ti. The combination of these wires resulted in a hypoeutectic microstructure with niobium and titanium carbides, with an average hardness of 650 HV0.3. The hypereutectic microstructures were formed by different niobium contents, with a microhardness range from 820 to 1,020 HV0.3. The performance of the hardfacing was evaluated in the rubber wheel abrasion test described by ASTM G65, Standard Test Method for Measuring Abrasion Using the Dry Sand/Rubber Wheel Apparatus (Superseded), procedure B. The results revealed that the carbide cracking distinguished the wear resistance, and the hardness was not enough to separate the wear behavior. Still, the volume fraction of carbides was a decisive microstructural parameter.

WITHDRAWN: Microstructural analysis and mechanical properties of a dissimilar material of AISI 4130 steel substrate coated with Stellite 6 manufactured by transferred ARC plasma welding (PTA)

This work evaluated the effect of varying PTA welding parameters on dilution: microstructure, microhardness, hardness and wear resistance. Two medium-carbon, low-alloy, high-strength alloy steel tubes, AISI 4130, were coated with CoCrWC cobalt alloy (Stellite 6) by powder-fed transferred arc plasma (PTA) welding process. Two different conditions were analyzed, varying the welding current, being 90A for condition 1 and 109A for condition (2). Appropriate specimens were removed for carrying out the metallographic tests, and microhardness, hardness and resistance to wear values were analyzed. abrasive wear. The samples were metallographically prepared for evaluation of the weld bead and the coating phases, through analyzes using SEM, EDS and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Rubber wheel abrasion tests were carried out following the ASTM G65 standard. It was observed that condition (2), with the lowest hardness value, highest dilution and a lowest volumetric fraction of carbides, presented a higher rate of wear, with its coating worn to the point of exposing the base metal after the test, when compared to condition (1), which presents a higher volume fraction of carbide phases, lower level of dilution and higher hardness.

High-speed laser cladding of chromium carbide reinforced Ni-based coatings

Fusion-bonded and low-diluted overlay welded coatings are frequently very thick (>1mm). High-speed laser cladding is a novel process capable of producing thin fusion-bonded and low-diluted coatings with high coverage rates and low heat input. In this study, for the first time, high-speed laser cladding was used to fabricate relatively thin Ni-based coatings reinforced with chromium carbides onto low-alloy structural and quenched and tempered steels. Obtained coatings were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical (OM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Mechanical and wear properties were tested with Vickers microhardness measurements and three-body dry-sand rubber wheel abrasion tests (RWAT). It was shown that high-speed laser cladding produces 0.2–0.3-mm-thick coatings, which consist of ultrafine-substructured hypereutectic M7C3 structures reinforced with coarser primary Cr3C2 particles. Coatings with hardness up to 1300 HV0.05 exhibited high wear resistance in low-stress three-body abrasion. Coatings developed can be used as alternatives for hard-chrome plated coatings.

Three-Body Abrasive Wear-Resistance Characteristics of a 27Cr-Based 3V-3Mo-3W-3Co Multicomponent White Cast Iron with Different Ti Additions

A multicomponent white cast iron containing 5 wt.% each of Cr, V, Mo, W, and Co (MWCI) is known to have excellent wear-resistance properties due to the precipitation of some very hard carbides, such as MC, M2C, and M7C3. However, it seems possible to improve the wear resistance of MWCI by increasing the carbide volume fraction (CVF). Thus, 27 wt.% Cr based on 3 wt.% each of V, W, Mo, and Co was simultaneously added into the white cast iron. To avoid the tendency of carbides to crack due to high M7C3 precipitation levels, titanium (0–2 wt.% Ti) was also added. A rubber wheel abrasive machine test according to the ASTM G65 standard with two different abrasive particle sizes (average: 75 and 300 μm) was used to evaluate the wear characteristics of the alloy. The results show that the wear resistance of these new alloys (0Ti, 1Ti, and 2Ti) is lower than that of MWCI in small silica sand, owing to the lower hardness. However, a different condition is present in large silica sand, for which the abrasive wear resistance of MWCI is lower than that of the 0Ti and 1Ti specimens. In addition, TiC precipitation effectively refined the size of M7C3 carbides and reduced their cracking tendency. Thus, the wear resistance of 1Ti is comparable to that of 0Ti, although it has a lower hardness factor. However, the wear resistance of the alloy significantly decreased following the addition of Ti by more than 1 wt.% due to the lower hardness and CVF. Therefore, it can be said that the abrasive wear characteristics of the alloy are not only affected by the hardness, but also by the micro-structural constituents (type, size, and volume fraction of carbides) and silica sand size.

The Effect of the Dilution Level on Microstructure and Wear Resistance of Fe-Cr-CV Hardfacing Coatings Deposited by PTA-P

Soil preparation tools are subject to severe abrasion. The wear resistance of various industrial components can be improved using the hardfacing technique. The improvement in hardfacing wear resistance depends on the microstructure, i.e., the chemical composition of the alloys, the method of overlay, and the parameters of the selected process. The Plasma Transferred Arc with Powder (PTA-P) welding process is interesting as a hardfacing technique since it promotes very low dilution of the substrate in the coating. In this article, the PTA-P welding process was used for the deposition of Fe-Cr-C-based hard coatings with the addition of vanadium onto cheap and relatively soft low-carbon steel substrates. Rubber-wheel abrasion tests were performed to compare the abrasion resistance between commercial anti-wear steel and weld-deposited Fe-Cr-C-V hard coatings. In addition, the microstructure, dilution, and wear mechanisms were investigated. The dilution of the coatings affected the microstructure, in particular, the free mean path of the vanadium carbides, but it only affected abrasion resistance when the wear mechanism involved rolling abrasion. The deposited coatings proved to be at least three times stronger than a commercial abrasion-resistant steel due to the distribution and morphology of the vanadium carbides formed in the coatings.

The microstructure and wear properties of diamond composite coatings on TC4 made by induction brazing

In this work, diamond and diamond/graphite composite coatings were obtained on the surfaces of TC4 (Ti-6Al-4V) alloy by high-frequency induction heating the preplaced powders in argon. The microstructures of the composite coatings were studied by scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive spectrometer and X-ray diffractometer, and the wear resistance of coatings was assessed by rubber wheel abrasion test. The results showed that the composite coatings had good metallurgical bonding with the substrates. TiC and ZrC particles in-situ generated in diamond/graphite composite coating improved the wear resistance of alloy matrix, but the free graphite weakened the wear-resistant structure of the coating. In the wear tests, abrasive wear was the main wear mechanism for diamond composite coating and diamond/graphite composite coating. Beside the elements of brazing alloy, carbon, aluminum and oxygen were the main elements detected at the surfaces of the two coatings.

Evaluation of silicon effects on abrasion performance, microstructure and crystalline structure of NiHard-4 white cast iron using synchrotron X-ray diffraction

NiHard-4 is a class of abrasion-resistant white cast iron widely used in mining ore-handling operations. It has a multi-component microstructure consisting of eutectic carbides and metallic matrix, both of which can influence abrasion performance. This work investigates the influence of silicon concentration on abrasion performance, microstructure and crystalline structure. Abrasion was assessed by dry sand rubber wheel abrasion test (DS-RWAT), inner circumference abrasion test (ICAT) with quartzite, and ICAT with basalt. Abrasion performance trends were explained in terms of microstructure and crystallographic evolution, using SEM, macro-hardness, micro-hardness and nano-hardness measurements, cryogenic treatment and synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD). As Si content increases, duplex (M3C + M7C3) eutectic carbides are replaced with homogeneous M7C3 carbides, the latter confirmed to have significantly higher hardness. However, contrary to suggestions from literature that Si should enhance abrasion resistance, the tests found that elevated Si in NiHard-4 leads to inferior performance. In the metallic matrix, increased Si results in lower hardness, which synchrotron XRD indicates is due to reduction of dissolved carbon concentration in the austenite. It is demonstrated that the detrimental effects of Si on the matrix outweigh any beneficial effect that it may have on the eutectic carbides, leading to net inferior abrasion performance.

Influence of Niobium Adding on the Microstructure and Abrasive Wear Resistance of a Heat-Treated High-Chromium Near-Eutectic Cast Iron Alloy

High chromium cast iron (HCCI) with levels around 26% Cr - 2.9% C according to ASTM A 532 IIIA is widely used in systems where high abrasive wear resistance is required. To evaluate the niobium influence, HCCI with 0.5% Nb and 1% Nb additions were melted, besides one without niobium addition of for comparison. For characterization, X-ray diffractometry, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Vickers microhardness tests, Rockwell C hardness, carbide quantifications, quantification of the retained austenite by Mössbauer spectroscopy, and rubber wheel abrasion test according to procedure A of ASTM G-65 were performed. The results indicated a reduction in the average size, average perimeter, and carbides volumetric fraction (CVF) due to the addition of niobium, also changing the microstructure of the HCCI from eutectic to hypoeutectic. In some regions, NbC0.75 carbides formed a coating around M7C3 carbides. The 0.5% Nb alloy showed the best performance in the rubber wheel abrasive wear test, with a 37% average volume loss reduction as compared to the sample without niobium addition with a 130N load and 34% with a 45N load. The 0.5% Nb alloy also had the highest content of retained austenite among the investigated alloys.

Comparing the abrasion performance of NiHard-4 and high-Cr-Mo white cast irons: The effects of chemical composition and microstructure

NiHard-4 and high-Cr-Mo white cast irons are two classes of abrasion-resistant cast irons extensively utilized in mining and related industries. Despite widespread usage, systematic performance comparisons between the two classes are lacking. Using four exemplar NiHard-4 and four exemplar high-Cr-Mo WCIs, this study compares the abrasive wear performance of the two alloy classes under a variety of conditions. The wear tests were the dry sand rubber wheel abrasion test (DS-RWAT), inner circumference abrasion test (ICAT) with quartzite, and ICAT with basalt. The resulting quantitative trends were interpreted and explained using bulk hardness, microhardness and nanohardness measurements, coupled with SEM of microstructures and worn surfaces.In all three abrasion tests the average wear life of high-Cr-Mo WCI was superior to NiHard-4. Average life improvements were 20% in DS-RWAT, 77% in ICAT-quartzite and 124% in ICAT-basalt. In the DS-RWAT there was overlap in the data and the difference between the two alloy classes was not statistically significant, but in the ICAT, for both rock types the two classes were strongly differentiated. Of various hypotheses considered to explain the results, the experimental evidence required that differences in carbide volume fraction or matrix hardness must be rejected. Instead it was shown that the superior performance of high-Cr-Mo WCIs was due primarily to their higher Cr:C ratio, resulting in higher Cr:Fe ratio and therefore elevated hardness and fracture toughness of the eutectic carbides.

Experimental investigation of three-body abrasive wear behavior of rice husk filled polylactic acid (PLA) composites

Investigation of three-body abrasive wear behavior of rice husk-filled Polylactic acid (PLA) composites of different weight percentages of 90/10, 80/20, and 70/30 and compared with the pure PLA. The experiments were carried in accordance with the ASTM G65 by using a rubber wheel abrasion tester (RWAT). The experiments were conducted for a load of 9.81, 29.46, and 49.65 N at an abrading distance of 300 m using 106microns abrasive dry Silica sand particles as a third body. The results of the experimental study revealed that the weight loss increases with an increase in applied load and wear resistance increases with an increase in fiber content in PLA composites. The greater wear resistance occurred at 30 wt% of rice husk fiber in the composite. With the help of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), the worn surfaces are analyzed.

Investigation on influence of SiCp on three-body abrasive wear behaviour of glass/epoxy composites

The present study present the influence of SiCp incorporation on three-body abrasive wear behavior of glass/epoxy composites. The investigations was carried out using dry sand rubber wheel abrasive wear test apparatus. 2k factorial design of experiment was used to capture the experimental data. The parameters considered are abrading distance, load and speed. The wear volume loss found to increase with the increasing values of wear parameters. The applied load has exhibited significant effect on volume loss. Incorporation of SiCp contributed to enhance wear resistance of glass/epoxy composites. The linear regression was also presented in the study to correlate abrasion parameters with wear volume loss. SEM image analysis of abraded surface revealed the occurrence of ploughing, micro-cutting, matrix removal and fiber breakage.

Formation of the structure and properties of the Fe-Mn-Si-C-based surfacing materials alloyed with VC

In the present study the coatings of the Fe-Mn-Si-V-C system, deposited using surfacing by flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) were investigated. Thermodynamic study of the Fe-Mn-Si-V-C alloying system were carried out using CALPHAD approach. Microstructure investigations were performed using optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). Hardness measurements of the surfaced layers were performed in deformed and undeformed state using Rockwell technique as well as microhardness measurements. Dry sand/ rubber wheel abrasion tests were used to compare the proposed coatings with the serial ones. The results show that the structure of Fe-Mn-Si-V-C-based surfacing alloy consists of two major phases, namely austenite which forms large dendritic grains and VC0.88 carbide inclusions, allocated along austenite grain boundaries as well as in the grains central regions. Hardness values in deformed and undeformed state for different VC content are in the range of 30–35 HRC and 42–45 HRC, respectively. The abrasion resistance of the proposed surfacing is almost two times higher than serial high-manganese steel-based surfacing alloy (Lastec 22).

Investigations of wear resistance of composite coatings (cobalt alloy-WC) produced by the LENS method

Metallic coatings strengthened by the reinforcing phase are among the widely used wear-resistant materials. The work attempted to produce composite coatings in the metallic matrix system (cobalt alloy) – reinforcing phase (tungsten carbide) fabricated by the Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) technique. The obtained coatings were assessed by metallurgical quality (microscopic observations), microhardness test in coating-substrate transition zone and tests of abrasive wear resistance under dry friction conditions. For this purpose, two different test methods were used: the ball-on-disc method and the rubber wheel abrasion test method. For each method, the same test parameters were used, such as force and number of disc/ roller rotations. The conducted tests showed that the weight loss of the coatings subjected to wear resistance tests in loose abrasive was much greater compared to the ball-on-disc method.

Effect of titanium and nitrogen inoculation on the microstructure, mechanical properties and abrasive wear resistance of Hadfield Steels

Abstract The effect of titanium and nitrogen addition on Hadfield steels was investigated. In order to do this, two grades of steels were produced in terms of titanium and nitrogen addition. The final samples had their microstructure characterized and their mechanical properties were evaluated by uniaxial tensile and Charpy impact tests. Furthermore, the wear resistance was measured by dry sand rubber wheel abrasive tests. Microscopy analyses demonstrated that the precipitation of titanium carbonitrides resulted in a coarse microstructure, with large columnar grains coexisting with equiaxed ones. Consequently, these samples presented lower mechanical properties in comparison with the samples without titanium and nitrogen, which showed a finer microstructure. On the other hand, the presence of hard Ti(C, N) precipitates in the microstructure improved the abrasive wear performance of the steel during the abrasive tests.

Dry sliding and abrasive wear behaviour of Al-7075 reinforced with alumina and boron nitride particulates

Abstract Present research examination focuses on the surface morphology; mechanical properties and wear conduct of Al-7075 metal matrix composites reinforced with alumina and hexagonal boron nitride fillers. Particulate reinforced Al-7075 metal matrix composites were manufactured following the two step stir casting method with differing the weight percentage (2.5 and 5) of reinforcement. Uniform dispersion of alumina and hexagonal boron nitride in pure alloy was verified by optical microstructure. The fabricated samples were subjected to abrasion using dry sand rubber wheel abrasive wear test rig by varying the abrading distance and the applied normal load. Silica sand of particle size 350–400 µm was used as abrasive medium. Mechanical and dry sliding wear test results indicated that both alumina and hexagonal boron nitride fillers show improved mechanical properties and wear resistance. From the abrasive wear test results, it was recognized that the wear resistance of composites is increased by increasing the weight percentage of reinforcements and the reinforced composite gave better resistance against abrasion than the control sample (Al-7075). Further, it was adjudicated that 5 wt% micro hexagonal boron nitride reinforced Al-7075 composite prompts predominant abrasion resistance. Finally, it was presumed that hexagonal boron nitride and alumina fillers gracefully and successfully improved morphological, mechanical, and also the wear properties of Al-7075 alloy for various engineered load-bearing applications.

Comparison of abrasive wear by rice husk of an HVOF WC–Co–Cr-based coating and an electric arc sprayed coating based on Fe–Cr–B–Si

The effect of abrasive wear is particularly relevant in the industrial areas of agriculture, mining, mineral processing and earth moving. Wear problems occur in mills and silos where grain is stored and moved in large quantities through the process of agro-processing. Machines and equipment that work under direct contact with the grain suffer from severe three-body abrasive wear from the rice husks. The main objective of this study was to investigate the abrasive wear behavior of an Fe–29Cr–4B–1.75Si coating sprayed by electric arc and a WC–10Co–4Cr coating applied by the high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) methods. Both coatings used SAE 1016 carbon steel as the substrate. A dry-sand, rubber wheel abrasion test was performed using ASTM G65 standard that employs sand as an abradant. It was compared to a variation on that test that employed rice husk as the abradant. The coatings were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and microhardness. The microhardness values for coatings and substrate were measured using a microhardness Vickers tester equipped with a diamond pyramid indenter. The results showed that the mechanisms of wear differ by the change of abrasive, characterizing a wear by scratches when using the sand, and by microcutting, ledges and cracks when the rice husk is used as an abradant. The WC–10Co–4Cr deposition by HVOF showed satisfactory performance under abrasive wear with rice husk demonstrating a potential for application in agricultural implements working in the rice culture.

Effect of laser remelting on microstructure and wear resistance of plasma sprayed Al2O3-40%TiO2 coating

The Al2O3-40%TiO2 coating fabricated by plasma spraying on carbon steel substrate were remelted by laser, and the effect of laser remelting on microstructure and wear resistance of plasma sprayed Al2O3-40%TiO2 coating were studied. The microstructure and phase composition of plasma sprayed and laser remelted coatings were analyzed using scanning election microscopy (SEM), energy disperse spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction(XRD). The micro-hardness and adhesion strength of two coatings were measured using micro-hardness tester and electronic universal tensile testing machine. The wear resistance of two coatings was tested through a slurry rubber wheel abrasion test machine, and the wear behaviour was also studied by SEM.The results show that metastable phase γ-Al2O3 in coating is completely transformed into stable phase α-Al2O3 after laser remelting. The laser remelted coating becomes much denser, and then its microhardness and adhesion strength have been greatly improved. The laser remelted coating exhibits better wear resistance compared to the plasma-sprayed coating, and the main wear mechanism responsible for wear was microcrack and fracture wear.