American Ginseng Root Research Articles

Allelopathic Effects of Ginsenosides from Panax ginseng on the Root Development of Four Cultivar Plants in Their Early Growth Stages

Some allelochemicals, including ginsenosides secreted from the roots of ginseng and American ginseng, have been considered to play a regulatory role in population regeneration. This study was conducted to investigate the allelopathic effects of ginsenosides on the root development of several cultivar plants at the early growth stage. The different inhibitions in wheat, cabbage, and cucumber roots resulting from ginsenosides treatment at different concentrations were observed. The root vigor of the three receptor plants constantly decreased compared with the control when the treatment concentration increased; the root length and root fresh weight exhibited similar trends. However, ginsenoside treatment showed negligible effect on the hypocotyl adventitious roots of cucumber and mung bean. The root number, root length, root fresh weight, and root vigor showed no significant changes; however, the antioxidant enzyme activities were slightly enhanced compared with that of the control. These results indicate that the ginsenosides inhibited the root growth of all indicator plants, and these inhibitory effects were stronger on wheat and cucumber than on cabbage. However, no evidence indicates that ginsenosides inhibited the growth of hypocotyl cuttings of cucumber and mung bean.

American ginseng ( Panax quinquefolius) prevents glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated endothelial abnormalities

Purpose Ginseng (Araliaceae), demonstrates widespread biological effects because of its purported antioxidant and other properties. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of American ginseng root extract on glucose-induced oxidative stress and associated oxidative damage to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Methods Following pretreatment with various concentrations of ginseng (alcoholic extract), HUVECs were incubated with various concentrations of d-glucose ranging from 5 to 25 mmol/l for 24 h. l-Glucose was used at a concentration of 25 mmol/l as a control. Results Glucose-induced oxidative stress detected by intracellular reactive oxygen species accumulation, superoxide anion generation and DNA damage in HUVECs were significantly prevented by ginseng. Treatment of HUVECs with ginseng further led to significant prevention of glucose-induced NF-κB activation. Glucose-induced increase in fibronectin (FN), EDB +FN (a splice variant of FN), endothelin-1 (ET-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNAs and protein levels were also prevented by ginseng treatment. Conclusion These data indicate that American ginseng prevented glucose-induced damage in the HUVECs through its antioxidant properties.

Ginseng aqueous extract attenuates the production of virulence factors, stimulates twitching and adhesion, and eradicates biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

This study was carried out to examine the antimicrobial activity of the aqueous extract of Panax quinquefolius from North American ginseng (NAGE) root against Pseudomonas aeruginosa . The minimum inhibitory concentrations of reference and clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa were measured by a standard agar-dilution method. At subinhibitory NAGE concentrations, the secretion of virulence factors, motility on agar, and adhesion to 96-well microplates were studied on the nonmucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa O1 strain. At suprainhibitory concentrations, the activity of NAGE against mature biofilm complexes formed in the Calgary Biofilm Device and the Stovall flow cell were assessed. NAGE possessed an antibacterial activity against all the Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains at 1.25%-2.5% w/v. NAGE also significantly attenuated pyocyanin, pyoverdine, and lipase concentrations, stimulated twitching, and attenuated swarming and swimming motility. At 1.25% w/v, NAGE augmented adhesion, and at 5% w/v detached 1-day-old biofilms in microplates. The extract also eradicated 6-day-old mature biofilms (5% w/v), and fluorescence microscopy displayed a reduction of live cells and biofilm complexes compared with nontreated biofilms. These data suggest that the aqueous extract from North American ginseng possesses antimicrobial activities in vitro.

The Yin and Yang actions of North American ginseng root in modulating the immune function of macrophages

BackgroundImmuno-modulatory effects of ginseng, including both immuno-stimulatory and immuno-suppressive effects, have been widely reported. This study aims to determine whether the paradoxical immuno-modulatory effect is related to unique phytochemical profiles of different North American (NA) ginseng, namely aqueous (AQ) and alcoholic (ALC) extracts.MethodsAQ and ALC extracts were prepared and their immuno-bioactivity were studied in vitro in murine macrophages (Raw 264.7) through measuring the direct stimulatory production of pro-inflammatory mediator and cytokines as well as the suppression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulatory response by the two extracts. Gel permeation chromatography was used to fractionate and isolate phytochemicals for characterization of ginseng extracts.ResultsAQ extract up-regulated the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) while ALC extract did not. ALC extract but not AQ extract suppressed LPS-induced macrophage NO and TNF-α production. These immuno-stimulatory and suppressive effects were exhibited at similar extract concentrations. Moreover, the macrophage-stimulating activity of the AQ extract was inhibited in the presence of ALC extract. Fractionation of AQ extract revealed the presence of two major peaks at 230 nm with average molecular weights of 73,000 and 37,000 Da. The first fraction had similar elution volume as the crude polysaccharide (PS) fraction isolated from the AQ extract, and it was the only bioactive species. Parallel fractionation study of ALC extract yielded similar elution profiles; however, both sub-fractions were devoid of PS. Fraction I of the ALC extract suppressed LPS-induced NO production dose-dependently.ConclusionALC extract of NA ginseng, which was devoid of PS, was immuno-inhibitory whereas the AQ extract, which contained PS, was immuno-stimulatory. These extract-related anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory effects may be considered as the Yin and Yang actions of ginseng.

Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and Licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) Root Extract Combinations Increase Hepatocarcinoma Cell (Hep‐G2) Viability

The combined cytoactive effects of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) root extracts were investigated in a hepatocarcinoma cell line (Hep-G2). An isobolographic analysis was utilized to express the possibility of synergistic, additive or antagonistic interaction between the two extracts. Both ginseng and licorice roots are widely utilized in traditional Chinese medicine preparations to treat a variety of ailments. However, the effect of the herbs in combination is currently unknown in cultured Hep-G2 cells. Ginseng (GE) and licorice (LE) extracts were both able to reduce cell viability. The LC50 values, after 72 h, were found to be 0.64 ± 0.02 mg/mL (GE) and 0.53 ± 0.02 mg/mL (LE). An isobologram was plotted, which included five theoretical LC50s calculated, based on the fixed fraction method of combination ginseng to licorice extracts to establish a line of additivity. All combinations of GE to LE (1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 4/5) produced an effect on Hep-G2 cell viability but they were all found to be antagonistic. The LC50 of fractions 1/3, 1/2, 2/3 were 23%, 21% and 18% above the theoretical LC50. Lactate dehydrogenase release indicated that as the proportion of GE to LE increased beyond 50%, the influence on membrane permeability increased. Cell-cycle analysis showed a slight but significant arrest at the G1 phase of cell cycle for LE. Both GE and LE reduced Hep-G2 viability independently; however, the combinations of both extracts were found to have an antagonistic effect on cell viability and increased cultured Hep-G2 survival.

Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Ginsenoside Metabolites in Human Plasma

American ginseng is a commonly used herbal medicine in the United States. When ginseng is taken orally, its active components, ginsenosides, are reportedly biotransformed by intestinal microbiota. Previous pharmacokinetic evaluations of ginseng in humans have focused on its parent constituents. However, the metabolites, especially those transformed by intestinal microbiota, have not been carefully studied. We used an ultra-performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/TOF-MS) method to determine 15 ginsenosides and/or metabolites and their bioavailability in humans. Six healthy human subjects received a single oral dose of 10 g of American ginseng root powder, after which samples of their blood were collected at 0, 2, 4, 7, 9 and 12 h for measurement of ginsenoside/metabolite levels in plasma. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, Rg2 and compound K (C-K) were detected in human plasma samples at different time points. The Rb1 concentration peak was 19.90 ± 5.43 ng/ml at 4 h. C-K was detected from 7 h to 12 h with 7.32 ± 1.35 ng/ml at 12 h. Since the last time point was at 12 h, C-K peak level was not observed. The areas under the concentration curves (AUC) from 0 to 12 h were 155.0 ± 19.5 ng⋅h/ml for Rb1 and 26.4 ± 6.4 ng⋅h/ml for C-K, respectively. The gradual decrease of Rb1 levels and the delayed increase in levels of C-K observed in human subjects supported previous reports that enteric microbiota played a key role in transforming Rb1 to C-K.

Red notoginseng: Higher ginsenoside content and stronger anticancer potential than Asian and American ginseng

A systematic comparison of the ginsenosides and anticancer activities was performed amongst white (air-dried) and red (steamed) roots of notoginseng (NG, Panax notoginseng), Asian ginseng (AG, Panax ginseng), and American ginseng (AmG, Panax quinquefolius). Chemical profiles of different ginseng species were characterised, through simultaneous quantification of 19 major ginsenosides, by HPLC–UV at 202 nm. The antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on human colorectal cancer cells were determined by MTS method and flow cytometry, respectively. Chemical analysis indicated that white NG possessed the most abundant ginsenosides, i.e., 2- and 5-fold higher than white AmG and AG. During the steaming process, extensive conversion of the original polar ginsenosides in white ginseng to new, less polar, degradation compounds in red ginseng was observed. White ginsengs produced weak antiproliferative effects, while red ginsengs exhibited a significant increase in antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects (both p < 0.01 vs white ginseng). Amongst the three red ginsengs, red NG showed the best anticancer activity. Due to the low cost of NG and high bioactivity of red NG, the red NG is promising to be a useful botanical product in cancer chemoprevention.

Dynamic response of ginsenosides in American ginseng to root fungal pathogens

The existence of a complex relationship between soil microbes and ginsenoside contents in their host plants has been reported by previous studies. Here, we analyzed the interaction between the root pathogens and the ginsenoside content in the roots of American ginseng. Two fungal pathogen species were isolated from diseased American ginseng roots, and identified as Fusarium oxysporum (isolate C1) and Fusarium solani (isolate F19) by molecular sequencing analysis. To determine the effect of Fusarium-mediated infection of American ginseng roots, the contents of three ginsenosides, ginsenosides Rb1, ginsenosides Re and ginsenosides Rg1, were monitored over a time course of 120 h post infection using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We found that the level of Rb1 was rapidly upregulated upon fungal infection, whereas the contents of Re or Rg1 were not altered significantly. Furthermore, the presence of Rb1, but not Re or Rg1, significantly inhibited conidium germination of both Fusarium species. Thus, Rb1 is likely the disease-resistance compound produced by American ginseng roots in response to the pathogenic fungi. Our study is the first to report the three ginsenosides with different chemical structure respond differently to soilborne pathogen infection.

Porosity Changes and Retention of Ginsenosides in North American Ginseng Root Using Different Dehydration Processes

Air drying (AD), freeze-drying (FD), and vacuum-microwave drying (VMD) were applied to fresh North American ginseng roots to evaluate the effect of different drying techniques on pore characteristics and the subsequent recovery of ginsenoside content. FD ginseng root produced the lowest reductions in both total moisture content and water activity (P < 0.05), with no differences noted between Ontario or British Columbia ginseng. Ginseng roots from Ontario and British Columbia sources were therefore pooled to conduct the root porosity and ginsenoside measurements. Among samples, FD ginseng obtained the highest total porosity followed by VMD and AD, respectively (P < 0.05). All dehydrated samples had a porous structure with sizes that ranged from 0.002 μm to 172 μm, dominated by macropores (>1.5 μm). Pore characteristics of dried ginseng root were shown to affect recovery of ginsenosides, with the general trend being an increase in total porosity resulting in an increase in total ginsenoside recovered. High performance liquid chromatography results obtained on specific ginsenosides showed that AD of ginseng root resulted in the lowest recovery of total ginsenosides, most notably, Rg1 and Rb1, followed by VMD and FD, respectively. There was no specific difference in total ginsenoside recovery from roots dried at increasing power of VMD.

Extraction of Ginsenosides from American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) Root

Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was compared with room temperature extraction (RTE) and reflux temperature extraction (RFX) on the extraction of ginsenosides from fresh American ginseng root. The influence of various factors, i.e. extraction method, solvent type, solvent to sample ratio, extraction time, and the size of sample particles on the extraction of ginsenosides Re, mRb1, Rb1 and total ginsenosides was studied. An 86 to 300% increase in extraction rate was observed with extraction under raised temperature in the microwave. Using microwave energy instead of hotplate-heating for the extraction resulted in a 31 to 96% increase in extraction rate. Visual analysis of the chromatograms of extracts can help the selection of extracting conditions for selectively obtaining specific ginsenosides enriched extracts.

De novo sequencing and analysis of the American ginseng root transcriptome using a GS FLX Titanium platform to discover putative genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis

BackgroundAmerican ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is one of the most widely used herbal remedies in the world. Its major bioactive constituents are the triterpene saponins known as ginsenosides. However, little is known about ginsenoside biosynthesis in American ginseng, especially the late steps of the pathway.ResultsIn this study, a one-quarter 454 sequencing run produced 209,747 high-quality reads with an average sequence length of 427 bases. De novo assembly generated 31,088 unique sequences containing 16,592 contigs and 14,496 singletons. About 93.1% of the high-quality reads were assembled into contigs with an average 8-fold coverage. A total of 21,684 (69.8%) unique sequences were annotated by a BLAST similarity search against four public sequence databases, and 4,097 of the unique sequences were assigned to specific metabolic pathways by the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. Based on the bioinformatic analysis described above, we found all of the known enzymes involved in ginsenoside backbone synthesis, starting from acetyl-CoA via the isoprenoid pathway. Additionally, a total of 150 cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and 235 glycosyltransferase unique sequences were found in the 454 cDNA library, some of which encode enzymes responsible for the conversion of the ginsenoside backbone into the various ginsenosides. Finally, one CYP450 and four UDP-glycosyltransferases were selected as the candidates most likely to be involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis through a methyl jasmonate (MeJA) inducibility experiment and tissue-specific expression pattern analysis based on a real-time PCR assay.ConclusionsWe demonstrated, with the assistance of the MeJA inducibility experiment and tissue-specific expression pattern analysis, that transcriptome analysis based on 454 pyrosequencing is a powerful tool for determining the genes encoding enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in non-model plants. Additionally, the expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and unique sequences from this study provide an important resource for the scientific community that is interested in the molecular genetics and functional genomics of American ginseng.

Effect of different treatment methods on quality of American ginseng roots

Fresh roots of healthy four-year-old American ginseng were randomly divided into two groups and stored for 180 days in sand without washing (treatment A) and in plastic bag with preservative after washing (treatment B), and sampled after 45, 90, 135 and 180 days of storage, respectively. The incidence of disease was surveyed and the contents of ginsenoside, polysaccharide, and free amino acids of roots were determined. The results indicats that the disease of ginseng could be controlled better by the treatment B than by the treatment A within 45 days, but the better effect was achieved in the treatment A after storage for 45 days. Both storage methods had significant influence on the contents of ginsenoside, polysaccharide and free amino acids of roots. For the treatment A, the ginsenoside content of roots had remained relatively high during the storage period, and the crude polysaccharide and free amino acids changed slowly within 135 days and then increase significantly until 180 days. For the treatment B, the content of crude polysaccharide of roots decreased obviously after 90 days of storatge and then became stable until 135 days. The change of content of free amino acids was similar to the crude polysaccharide, but the decline was not significant. In general, the treatment A is more benefit to keep the quality of fresh roots of American Ginseng during 180 days of storage.

Growth kinetics and ginsenosides production in transformed hairy roots of American ginseng—Panax quinquefolium L

A thin, profusely branched, fast growing hairy root line of Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) was established by co-culturing epicotyl explants with a wild type strain of Agrobacterium rhizogenes. The transformed roots grew by over 10-fold from the initial inoculum within 8 weeks. The crude ginsenosides content in the roots was about 0.2 g/g dry wt level up to the 10th week of culture. Ginsenosides Rb2, Rd, Re, Rf and Rg1 constituted 47-49% of the crude saponin fraction between 6 and 8 weeks of growth whereas, Rc ginsenoside was accumulated only after 9th weeks when the biomass started receding. PCR amplification analysis of the hairy roots confirmed their transgenic nature by showing the presence of Ri-TL DNA with rolA, rolB and rolC genes in their genome.

Antioxidants potentiate American ginseng-induced killing of colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States. Novel prevention or therapeutic agents are needed to better manage this disease. American ginseng is a commonly used herb and is believed to have lots of health benefits, including anti-cancer activities. However there have been very few in-depth studies of the activities of this herb at the molecular level. In this report we showed that 4 h-steamed American ginseng root extract (S4h) induced mitochondrial damage, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), and apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells. We showed that the NF-κB pathway was activated by S4h and that removal of ROS inhibited S4h-induced NF-κB activation. We further showed that both antioxidants and a specific inhibitor of the NF-κB pathway enhanced S4h-induced cell death. Finally, we showed that protecting the mitochondria decreased both the level of ROS and apoptosis. Taken together, these results indicate that S4h-induced apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells is mediated by mitochondria damage and that damage to the mitochondria activates both the apoptosis pathway and the ROS/NF-κB mediated survival pathway. These results further suggest that the anti-cancer effect of steamed ginseng can be enhanced by antioxidants or inhibitors of the NF-κB pathway.

Differential Effects of Falcarinol and Related Aliphatic C17-Polyacetylenes on Intestinal Cell Proliferation

Quantitative major polyacetylenes of carrots (falcarinol and falcarindiol) and American ginseng roots (falcarinol and panaxydol) were isolated and tested in human intestinal epithelial cells of normal (FHs 74 Int.) and cancer (Caco-2) origin. A hormesis effect was seen for all isolated polyacetylenes when added to Caco-2 cells in concentrations ranging from 1 ng/mL to 20 μg/mL. The relative inhibitory potency was falcarinol > panaxydol > falcarindiol. No hormesis effect was observed when adding the polyacetylenes to FHs 74 Int. cells. Instead, an inhibitory growth response was observed above 1 μg/mL. The relative inhibitory potency was panaxydol > falcarinol > falcarindiol. Maximal inhibition at 20 μg/mL corresponded to approximately 95% and 80% inhibition of cell proliferation in normal and cancer cells, respectively. Combinations of falcarinol and falcarindiol added to normal and cancer cells showed a synergistic response for the inhibition of cell growth. Furthermore, the oxidized form of falcarinol, falcarinon, showed a significantly less growth inhibitory effect in intestinal cells of both normal and cancer origin; hence, a hydroxyl group at C-3 may be important for activity of falcarinol-type polyacetylenes. Extracts of carrots, containing different amounts of falcarinol, falcarindiol, and falcarindiol 3-acetate had significant inhibitory effects on both normal and cancer cell proliferation. In cancer cells, the extract containing the highest concentration of falcarinol tended to have the highest growth inhibitory effect, in accordance with a higher potency of falcarinol than falcarindiol. The present study demonstrates that aliphatic C17-polyacetylenes are potential anticancer principles of carrots and related vegetables and that synergistic interaction between bioactive polyacetylenes may be important for their bioactivity.

The mitochondrial pathway is involved in American ginseng-induced apoptosis of SW-480 colon cancer cells

Numerous effective anticancer drugs have been developed from botanical sources, and there remains a significant untapped resource in herbal medicines. In this study, we evaluated the chemical composition of extracts from American ginseng after steaming, the antiproliferative effects of the ginsenosides in the extracts on SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells, and their apoptotic mechanisms. American ginseng roots were steamed at 120 degrees C for 2 or 4 h. Representative ginsenosides in the unsteamed and steamed extracts were determined using HPLC. The antiproliferative effects of the ginsenosides Rb1, Rg3 and Rh2 on SW-480 cells were determined by the MTS method. The effect of extract steamed for 4 h on apoptosis of SW-480 cell was assayed by flow cytometry after staining with annexin V/PI. The expression of 84 apoptotic-related genes, including TNF, mitochondria and p53 pathways, was determined using real-time quantitative PCR array analysis. The mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsim) was analyzed after staining with FC-1. Steaming of American ginseng increased Rg3 and Rh2 content and antiproliferative activity significantly. The quantitative PCR array data demonstrated that multiple genes in mitochondrial pathway are involved in American ginseng-induced apoptosis of SW-480 cells and the expression profiling was validated by the cellular functional assay. The mitochondrial pathway may play a key role in American ginseng-mediated cancer cell apoptosis.

Anti-diabetic effect of American ginseng may not be linked to antioxidant activity: Comparison between American ginseng and Scutellaria baicalensis using an ob/ob mice model

Antioxidants have been considered as a useful remedy in diabetes therapeutics, and thus, herbal medicines with antioxidant properties may play major role in treating diabetes. In this report, we performed a comparative study using American ginseng and Scutellaria baicalensis to test whether the anti-diabetic effect of American ginseng is associated with its antioxidant activity. We used a simple water extraction procedure to prepare American ginseng root extract (AGE) and S. baicalensis extract (SbE), and utilized these two antioxidant herbs to evaluate their anti-diabetic effect in obese diabetic ob/ob mice. HPLC analysis was used to identify major constituents in the AGE and SbE. After 12 days of daily intraperitoneal injection, AGE at 300 mg/kg showed significant effects on fasting blood glucose levels (P<0.01) and glucose tolerance test (P<0.01) compared to vehicle-treated mice. Animal body weights also reduced significantly after 12-day treatment (P<0.01). However, SbE, a very strong antioxidant extract, administered at 5-50 mg/kg (based on our previous studies without adverse events) for 12 days did not show any significant effects on blood glucose and body weight changes. No effects were shown when baicalein, an effective antioxidant constituent in SbE, was administered at 1-5 mg/kg. It appears that the anti-diabetic effect of American ginseng may not be linked to its antioxidant actions. The mechanisms of American ginseng's effects on reducing high blood glucose levels and body weight remain to be investigated in future experiments.

Change of Ginsenoside Composition of Various American Ginseng Roots

Sung Kwon Ko1, Ok Sun Cho1, Hye Min Bae1, Uy Dong Sohn2, Byung Ok Im3, Soon Hyun Cho4, Sung Hyun Chung5, and Boo Yong Lee6* 1Department of Oriental Medical Food & Nutrition, Semyung University, Jecheon 390-711, Republic of Korea 2College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea 3Department of Natural Medicine Resources, Semyung University, Jecheon 390-711, Republic of Korea 4Korea Ginseng Institute, Chung-Ang University, Ansung 456-756, Republic of Korea 5College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea 6Graduate School of Complementary Alternative Medicine, CHA University, Seongnam 463-836, Republic of Korea

Induction of Chemoprotective Phase 2 Enzymes by Ginseng and its Components

Phase 2 detoxification enzymes protect against carcinogenesis and oxidative stress. Ginseng ( PANAX spp.) extracts and components were assayed for inducer activity of NQO1 (quinone reductase), a phase 2 enzyme, in Hepa1c1c7 cells. Ginseng extracts were analyzed for ginsenosides and panaxytriol. Korean red PANAX GINSENG extracts demonstrated the most potent phase 2 enzyme induction activity (76,900 U/g dried rhizome powder and 27,800 U/g for two similar preparations). The ginsenoside-enriched HT-1001 American ginseng ( PANAX QUINQUEFOLIUS) extract was the next most potent inducer, with activity of 15,900 U/g, followed by raw American ginseng root with activity of 8700 U/g. Neither a polysaccharide-enriched extract of American ginseng nor a commercial white PANAX GINSENG preparation showed any inducer activity. Pure ginsenosides showed no inducer activity. Protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol, deglycosylated ginsenoside metabolic derivatives, showed potent induction activity (approximately 500,000 U/g each). Synthetic panaxytriol was over 10-fold more potent (induction potency 5,760,000 U/g). There was no correlation between ginsenoside content and phase 2 enzyme induction. The most potent inducing red ginseng extract also had the highest panaxytriol content, 120.8 microg/g. We found that ginseng induced NQO1 and that polyacetylenes are the most active components.

The effect of magnesium and foliar fertilization with Mikrosol U on healthiness and quality of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) roots

The effect of magnesium and foliar fertilization with Mikrosol U on healthiness and quality of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) roots