Rolling Contact Fatigue Research Articles

Discrete element modelling of rolling contact fatigue and crack closure with different bond laws

The prediction of rolling contact fatigue requires modelling methods that efficiently simulate the propagation, branching and coalescence of fatigue cracks. The developed Discrete Element Method (DEM) model is a novel approach to provide this capability. The model is based on discrete elements (bonds) that are subject to a fatigue law. With it, the failure of elements due to cyclic loads can be simulated. The propagating cracks are not confined to predefined paths, but develop according to the local loading conditions. These conditions depend on an appropriate set-up of the element interaction, i.e. the bond law, which is calibrated, taking into account crack closure effects. The method delivers a relevant improvement for DEM- and peridynamic models, where compressive loads dominate. The current development of the model is summarised in this paper.

IKonPro®: A software for the probabilistic prediction of rolling contact fatigue

This work develops a software for the probabilistic prediction of rolling contact fatigue in multiple-row ball bearings subject to any loads and rotations. iKonPro®, as it has been named, calculates the failure probability of the raceways and the bearing, taking as input the material fatigue properties, contact-load and -angle distributions for discrete load cases, and the subsurface stress responses to different ball loads. The software is based on the determination of ball kinematics and equilibrium, raceways stress states, and local and global failure probabilities. Here, iKonPro® is applied to a wind-turbine pitch bearing and the results demonstrate that it correctly captures the size effect.

Modelling micropit formation in rolling contact fatigue of bearings with a crystal plasticity damage theory coupled with cohesive finite elements

Modelling micropit formation under rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is a big challenge due to strong dependence on microstructure. A RCF damage model was developed based on combined crystal plasticity theory and cohesive zone to study the crack growth and micropit formation. The results showed the crack growth is driven by shear stress, but affected by crystal orientation. Cracks would rather propagate transgranularly in the shear stress-dominant region as the damage accumulates inside grains faster than at grain boundaries. They changes to intergranular beyond the stress-dominated region becasue there is no enough driving force. The modelling results agree well the experiment.

Rough surface rolling contact fatigue crack stress intensity factor calculation for modern rail steels

For premium grades (and rail surface treatments such as ‘laser cladding’) there is little plastic damage expected during typical operating conditions, and smooth surface contact models predict a long life. However, damage still develops, including rolling contact fatigue, affecting premium steels from multiple suppliers. A model is described predicting stress intensity factors and indicative crack growth rates for cracks driven by surface roughness stresses. Accompanying field data quantify the asperity separation and tip radii for rails from metro, mixed traffic and a freight line in ground or unground conditions. The results predict that in rough surface contact small surface cracks (50–100 μm, exceeding microstructural dimensions) can grow faster than crack removal by wear, even when smooth surface models predict no growth. The model has application in identifying how rail grinding marks or wheel roughness may be an important factor in determining rail life through raised stresses at the rail surface (leading to wear), and increased stress intensities and growth rates for incipient cracks.

Comparative Fatigue Performance of Decarburized Surfaces in Railway Rails.

This study explores the comparative fatigue performance of decarburized surfaces in railway components, emphasizing rolling contact fatigue, crack propagation, and acoustic emission. The investigation entails the examination of two grades of railway steels, namely R260 and U71Mn, to analyze crack and surface characteristics subsequent to fatigue testing employing a Twin Roller Machine. The purpose is to discern the impact of decarburization on the fatigue life of these materials. The results reveal distinct patterns in crack propagation and acoustic emission between decarburized and non-decarburized surfaces, providing valuable insights into the fatigue behavior of railway components. This comparative analysis contributes to a nuanced understanding of the material's response to cyclic loading.

Analysis of rolling contact fatigue and wear characteristics of aging-treated laminar plasma strip quenching rails

The application of laminar plasma discrete quenching (LPQ) technology to enhance the wear resistance of railway tracks has been a notable advancement. Nonetheless, it has been observed that LPQ-treated rails experience a reduction in rolling contact fatigue (RCF) resistance. Our previous study found that aging treatment can improve the toughness of laminar plasma spot quenched rails. However, the microstructure as well as the mechanical properties of strip quenching are significantly different from those of spot quenching. To tackle this concern, the study delves into the wear and RCF damage mechanisms of aging-treated laminar plasma strip quenching (ALPQ) rails. The findings reveal that the aging process induces the precipitation of supersaturated solid solutions within the hardened layer, consequently elevating the RCF resistance of ALPQ rails. Following appropriate aging treatment, nearly complete elimination of fatigue cracks on the rail surface is achieved.

Effect of nano-graphene as an additive for the improved rolling contact fatigue life of through hardened AISI 4140 alloy steel

The Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) behaviour of through-hardened AISI 4140 samples under formulated lubricant with nano-graphene additives were investigated. Results showed that the reference oil added with 1% (wt.) of nano-graphene particles has significantly improved life by 6 folds. The increased RCF performance is attributed to the efficient action of graphene nano particle which improves the antiwear and pitting resistance of contact pairs. Moreover, spectroscopy and microscopy analyses indicated that graphene particles are adsorbed on the contact surface and delay the surface pit formation. Adding nano-graphene particles in the reference lubricant is an effective way to improve the RCF life under thin oil having low lubricant viscosity and also for the samples having lesser surface hardness such as through- hardened compared to induction-hardened samples.

Enhancing RCF rail defect inspection on the Serbian railway network

The interaction between the wheel and the running rails within the railway system introduces intricate stress patterns, resulting in the formation of rolling contact fatigue (RCF) rail defects. The magnitude of this stress is contingent upon factors such as track performance, vehicle characteristics, and service conditions. While advancements in rail metallurgy can mitigate the issue to some extent, no economically viable steel composition currently exists that can completely withstand the repetitive stresses associated with RCF. It is more cost-effective to properly maintain rails for longer use rather than replace them entirely. The paper emphasizes the importance of classifying and coding RCF rail defects in light of their potential adverse effects on rail transport safety. It provides an analysis of the available inspection methods for RCF rail defects and recommends the ones that should be implemented on the Serbian railway network. A combination of proposed inspection methods is preferred to increase detection efficiency for different types of RCF defects.

Impact of daily and seasonal temperature variation on rolling contact fatigue damage in the rail

Rolling contact fatigue is the most frequent degradation mode observed on the rail. Many mechanical studies have revealed the main physical parameters that generate the crack initiation, which are all linked with the track geometry, the dynamic of the wheel and contact conditions. Except for extreme climate, exogenous phenomena such as ambient temperature have not been analysed. The main reason is that temperature variations induce stress cycles in the rail that are under the endurance limit of the material. Therefore, most fatigue life estimation methods do not consider these cycles. In this paper, 6 years of daily temperature measurement over all the French railway network are used and integrated in a machine learning model developed for computing residual lifespan of each rail segment before crack initiation by rolling contact fatigue. Temperature data are aggregated using the continuum damage mechanics model developed by Lemaitre and Chaboche that gives the possibility to let low amplitude cycles to contribute to fatigue damage. Classification models are then implemented, and importance variables are finally quantifed. Results show that daily temperature variations have more impact than seasonal variations and that its contribution to fatigue is significant.

Finite Elements modelling and assessment of ceramic rollers with edge cracks

To ensure reliability of hybrid cylindrical roller bearings each ceramic roller is inspected, and scrapped if a surface imperfection above the critical size is detected. This inspection aims to reduce the potential root cause of Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) which can occur during operation, shortening the bearing life. The rejection criterion is based on experimental and theoretical knowledge, which for the last decade was developed in SKF for the material imperfections mainly located on the rolling element raceway. These imperfections are subjected to high contact pressure and therefore are considered as the primary root cause of RCF failure. Regarding rollers, however, imperfections can be present beyond the raceway, i.e. at the roller chamfer where the lower risk of RCF is expected, because the edge imperfections are typically out of the rolling contact zone. Nevertheless, the risk associated with these features should be assessed too, chiefly because the size of edge imperfections can be rather large. In our previous study, the imperfection termed as a Missing Material was studied, combining the semi-analytical tool for the contact mechanics and the Finite Elements (FE) method for the stress analysis. In the current work, another imperfection type is considered, and this is a surface crack located at the chamfer of ceramic roller. The RCF analysis is based on the semi-analytical evaluation of the rolling contact pressure (between a ceramic roller and a steel inner ring), and computational fracture mechanics for the estimation of fatigue crack propagation.

Tribological Performance of Laser‐Based Surface Textured Nonconformal Contacts

The benefits of surface textures on rolling and sliding tribological contacts have been an exciting field of study over the last three decades. Laser surface texturing (LST) is a comparatively newer texturing methodology that yields repeatable precise microtextures. A detailed overview of the available literature on the various works in this field is consolidated in this review. The main focus is on the effect of surface textures (with focus on laser ablation) for nonconformal contacts with elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL), as in rolling element bearings. A review of literature on textured contacts for the EHL regime, emphasizing its effect on friction, wear, rolling contact fatigue, vibration, texture geometry, and numerical simulation studies, is carried out with possibilities of future works. Basic details on LST processes and various parameters of the laser beam that determine the texture geometry are discussed. Being a field of continuing research, the review paper will aid in understanding the present developments and future directions in laser‐based surface texturing for nonconformal tribological contacts.

Time-variant reliability analysis of angular contact ball bearing considering the coupled effect of rolling contact fatigue damage and wear

Time-variant reliability analysis of angular contact ball bearing considering the coupled effect of rolling contact fatigue damage and wear

Heavy haul rail/wheel wear and RCF assessments using 3D train models and a new wear map

Wear and Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF) on wheels and rails are influenced by relative motions between the studied rail and wheel pair, and therefore influenced by train dynamics. Wear and RCF assessments using a train dynamics approach provide more accurate and comprehensive results comparing with conventional assessments that often do not consider train dynamics. In addition, considering material property differences, currently available rail wear maps are not able to accurately describe the wear performance of materials that have significantly different properties. This paper presented a method for rail/wheel wear and RCF assessments using 3D train dynamics models. The use of train models allows the consideration of coupler forces, traction, and brakes during the assessment. Wear assessments were conducted by using an in-house rail wear map model developed from the twin disc wear machine at the Centre for Railway Engineering (CRE). The new rail wear map was developed by using the AS 60 rail material (hardness 340 HB). The results indicated that the methods proposed in this paper could be used for rail/wheel wear and RCF assessments. Traction/braking forces and coupler lateral forces had evident influences on wear and RCF assessment. Different wear maps were also shown to have significant influences on the wear rate results.

Investigation of rail damage considering impact at a welded joint under wet condition

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to develop a transient wheel–rail rolling contact model to primarily investigate the rail damage under wet condition when the train passes through the welded joints.Design/methodology/approachThe impact force induced by welded joints is obtained through vehicle–track coupling dynamics. The normal and tangential wheel–rail contact pressures were solved by elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) theory and simplified third-body layer theory, respectively. Then, the obtained tangential pressure and normal pressure were applied to the finite element model as moving loads, simulating cyclic loading. Finally, the shakedown map and critical plane method were used to predict rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and the initiation of fatigue cracks.FindingsThe results indicate that RCF will occur and fatigue cracks are more prone to appear on the subsurface of the rail, specifically around 2.7 mm below the rail surface in the vicinity of the welded joint and its heat-affected zone.Originality/valueThe cosimulation of numerical model and finite element model was implemented. The influence of surface roughness and fluids was considered. In this model, the normal and tangential wheel–rail contact pressure, the stress and strain and the rail fatigue cracks were obtained under a rail-welded joint excitation.

Crack influence and fatigue life assessment in rail profiles: a numerical study

Rail transportation is a pivotal mode of land transport for its efficiency in transporting passengers and freight across short or long distances; hence, the reliability and safety of rail systems are of key importance. Rolling contact fatigue (RCF), characterized by the cyclic loading of wheel-rail contacts, presents a significant challenge in the rail industry. This study presents a comprehensive numerical investigation on the influence of different crack orientations on the contact stress of the rail profile and subsequently the fatigue life. Using finite element analysis (FEA) with Abaqus and FE-safe software, the study examined different crack orientations’ impact on stress distribution and fatigue life of rail profiles. Employing the extended finite element method (XFEM), this study modeled cracks in rail profiles with different orientations: parallel, perpendicular, and oblique to the rail axis. finite element analysis was used to obtain stress distribution results, highlighting the impact of crack presence, and orientation on maximum contact stresses. Subsequently, fatigue analysis was performed using FE-safe software, wherein the FEA results were imported to estimate fatigue life and damage evolution. The study revealed that the presence of a crack significantly influences contact stress, fatigue life, and damage accumulation. The results further demonstrated that crack orientation has an impact on the severity of those effects. Oblique cracks exhibited higher impact compared to lateral and longitudinal cracks. The study provides valuable insights into rolling contact fatigue-related failures, aiding in better understanding and mitigation of such issues, thereby contributing to improved rail maintenance practices and system safety.

Effects of fretting wear on rolling contact fatigue

In this study, a three-dimensional (3D) continuum damage mechanics (CDM) finite element (FE) model was developed to investigate the effects of fretting wear on rolling contact fatigue (RCF) of bearing steels. In order to determine the fretting scar geometry, a 3D arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) adaptive mesh (AM) FE model was developed to simulate fretting wear between two elastic bodies for different initially pristine fretting pressures (0.5, 0.75 and 1 GPa) and friction coefficients (0.15, 0.175 and 0.25) resulting in stick zone to contact width ratios, c/a = 0.35, 0.55 and 0.75. The resulting wear profiles were subjected to various initially pristine RCF pressures (1, 2.2 and 3.4 GPa). The pressure profiles for RCF were determined by moving the contact over the fretted wear profiles in 21 steps. These pressure profiles were then used in the CDM-FE model to predict the RCF life of fretted surfaces. The CDM-FE model uses Fatemi-Socie (FS) criteria for damage evolution and accounts for scatter in RCF life by implementing material topological variation through Voronoi tessellation. The results from CDM-FE RCF model indicate that fretting scar generated at 1 GPa with c/a = 0.35 has the most detrimental effect on RCF life at 1 GPa, reducing life by as much as 99.8% from pristine condition. However, it is to be noted that the remaining life expectancy at this RCF pressure (1 GPa) is significant and more than 17 billion cycles. As the RCF pressure increases (PRCF ≥ 2.2 GPa), the effect of fretting on RCF life decreases for all fretting pressures and c/a values, indicating that life is primarily governed by the RCF pressure. The results from CDM-FE model were also used to develop a life equation for evaluating the L10 life of fretted M-50 bearing steel for the range of tested conditions.

Atomistic simulation of rolling contact fatigue behavior of a face‐centered cubic material (nickel)

AbstractThe atomic‐level fundamental understanding of the rolling contact fatigue (RCF) mechanism using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is yet to be understood more clearly. In this paper, the atomistic behavior of the single‐crystal Ni is studied under dynamic rolling contact loading with the help of MD simulations at varying temperatures of the specimen. The deformed material is investigated using atomic strain analyses to evaluate the shear, volumetric strain distribution, and von Mises stress. Furthermore, dislocation and stacking–fault analyses are done to determine the deformation mechanism of the material with the oscillation cycles. Simulation studies infer that dislocation defects tend to increase with the temperature of the specimen logarithmically. The deformation majorly results in partial dislocations, indicating low stacking fault (SF) energy. The present work opens up a new field of study to understand the RCF mechanisms, which can provide the foundational work to understand other face‐centered cubic (FCC) materials.

On the importance of Crystal Plasticity Finite Element discretisation for the identification of crack initiation in RCF using energy-based criteria

Material microstructure plays a key role in crack initiation under rolling contact fatigue. When studying microstructure with crystal plasticity finite element method (CPFE), mesh sensitivity study is of great importance, as the surface-near region is under high uniaxial stresses. In this paper, a new structured mesh strategy is purposed and compared with the classical unstructured mesh strategy. Modelling tests on a bi-grain and a polycrystal model show the calculation of geometrically necessary dislocation (GND) density, recently proposed as a suitable fatigue damage indicator, is highly dependent on mesh morphology, when GND hotspots tend to appear near distorted elements even in homogeneous materials. With uniform mesh size and shape, structured mesh elements can provide physically more acceptable GND calculations, which is particularly important in loading scenarios with complex stresses, such as rolling contact fatigue. Computational efficiency is also improved compared to unstructured models because a smaller number of elements are required in a structured mesh model and pre-processing of the mesh is not required.

Two Contributions to Rolling Contact Fatigue Testing Considering Different Diameters of Rail and Wheel Discs

Scaled rolling contact fatigue tests, used to practically simulate the wear of the wheel and rail material under laboratory conditions, are typically classified into two categories. Tests in the first category use twin-disc stands, while the second group of test rigs use two discs of different diameters considering the rail disc as the larger one. The latter setup is closer to the real situation, but problems can occur with high contact pressures and tractions. The focus of this paper is on two main contributions. Firstly, a case study based on finite element analysis is presented, allowing the optimization of the specimen geometry for high contact pressures. Accumulated plastic deformation caused by cycling is responsible for abrupt lateral deformation, which requires the use of an appropriate cyclic plasticity model in the finite element analysis. In the second part of the study, two laser profilers are used to measure the dimensions of the specimen in real time during the rolling contact fatigue test. The proposed technique allows the changes in the specimen dimensions to be characterized during the test itself, and therefore does not require the test to be interrupted. By using real-time values of the specimen’s dimensional contours, it is possible to calculate an instantaneous value of the slip ratio or the contact path width.

Premium Rail Flash-Butt Welding Process Window Based on Phase Transformations

Currently, heavy-haul and passenger rails are joined by a welding process, which can be either flash-butt welding or thermite. The joining process has increased the overall rails strength, but the welding parameters optimization is tricky and must be performed and studied to improve the weld quality. Heavy-haul rails are high carbon steels, containing alloying elements and as such, the weld presents a series of difficulties. On one side, martensite should be avoided during the cooling step, while on the other, the HAZ should be minimized as it is known to be prone to localized wear and rolling contact fatigue. Finite element simulations were performed to map the weld cooling rates and corresponding heat-affected zone (HAZ) width. CCT curves of rail steels were determined using dilatometry for different austenitizing temperatures. Comparing the simulations with the CCT data, processing windows able to prevent martensite formation were determined, usually corresponding to a critical cooling rate of 2 °C/s. The correlation with the simulations showed that the shorter the HAZ length, the greater the chance of martensite formation due to the higher cooling rate. The methodology developed and presented in this paper can be used for simulations considering phase transformations or determining the microstructure formed from different thermal welding cycles, depending on the distance from the heat source during the welding process.