Chinese Bronze Research Articles

The Image of the “Lord of the Underworld” in Sanxingdui Ritual Bronzes

A bronze fantasy beast and human figure in a zoomorphic headdress were discovered in 1986 at the JK2 sacrificial pit of the Sanxingdui site. It belongs to the Bronze Age culture spread in the Sichuan province of the PRC. Peculiarities of construction and methods of production of the bronze anthropomorphic statue from Sanxingdui were the same as A and C type bronze masks and bronze “spirit trees” no. 2 and no. 1, meaning they all belonged to the same time. The fantasy beast mentioned above stood at the lowest tier of the so-called “sacred altar”, which was the “model of the world” of ancient inhabitants of Sanxingdui. They could think of him as the chthonic “Lord of the Underworld”. The results of new excavations at Sanxingdui in 2020–2022 are briefly mentioned. The plan and relative chronology of six newly discovered sacrificial pits are examined. The discussion of Chinese researchers about their nature is observed. The stratigraphy of new sacrificial pit JK8 is investigated in detail. Fantasy beasts of the same pedigree as in the JK2 sacrificial pit, which were found in newly discovered sacrificial pits JK3 and JK8 are described in detail. The beginning of depicting masks on bronze heads of A and C types is considered. The author argues that the bronze statue in a zoomorphic headdress from the JK2 sacrificial pit could represent the image of the “Lord of the Underworld” of Sanxingdui in his anthropomorphic form.

Material characterization of forged bronzes from ancient China (c. 11th-2nd century BCE) reveals development of the non-mainstream metalworking technique in Chinese bronze production

Although ceramic piece-mould casting was the dominant metalworking technique in the Chinese Bronze Age (c. 2100-221 BCE), the forging technique was also employed by craftsmen to pursue lightweight bronzes with thin walls and high hardness. However, compared to the ceramic piece-mould casting technique, research on forging technology is relatively limited. In this research, 48 sheet metal fragments of Chinese bronzes from different regions and periods (from the Zhou to Han dynasties) across China were analyzed by metallography, SEM-EDS, and hardness testing. The results show that craftsmen had a profound understanding of copper alloy properties and were able to produce thin-walled, functional artifacts by forging cast blanks with appropriate alloy compositions. With the development of forging technology and political changes, the types of forged thin-walled bronzes became more diverse, and their consumers expanded from the elite to civilians. This study not only reveals the material characterization of forged bronzes, but also elucidates the historical trajectories of forging technology and the multifaceted interplay between cultural influence, aesthetic pursuits and technological advancement in the development of forging techniques in ancient China.

A Historic and Aesthetic Comparison Analysis of Greek "Dark Age" Geometric Pottery and Chinese Ritual Bronzes

A Historic and Aesthetic Comparison Analysis of Greek "Dark Age" Geometric Pottery and Chinese Ritual Bronzes

Gamification of virtual museum curation: a case study of Chinese bronze wares

Museums, which are among the most popular science institutions outside schools, are usually used to display and introduce historical culture and cultural relics to tourists. Text and audio explanations are used by traditional museums to popularize historical knowledge and science for tourists, and general interactive systems are based on desktops. This learning method is relatively boring in terms of experience. As a result, tourists have no desire or interest in actively exploring and learning about bronze ware, so they only have a basic understanding about bronze ware. Since most tourists are familiar with games, they are more likely to be attracted by game content and will actively explore and interact with it. In addition, a certain degree of reality is created by virtual reality technology and an immersive experience through head-mounted devices is provided to users. In this paper, we take Chinese bronzes as the research objects. We first use 3D laser scanners to obtain bronze models ; then, we build a virtual museum environment, and we finally design a virtual reality curation game based on this bronze digital museum. This game offers visitors an immersive museum roaming and bronze ware interactive experience. Through a combination of text, video learning, and games, visitors’ curiosity and desire to explore bronze ware are stimulated, and their understanding and ability to remember bronze ware knowledge can be deepened. In terms of cultural heritage, this game is also conducive to the spread of traditional Chinese bronze culture throughout the world.

Corrosion and Protection of Chinese Bronze Relics: A Review

The corrosion problem affecting ancient Chinese bronze relics and the protective measures required post-excavation are crucial for the study of historical cultural heritage and for ensuring heritage revitalization and sustainable development. This work includes a statistical analysis, clusters information, and thoroughly examines international research on bronze relic corrosion and protection. It delves into the timeline and trends of research, the main countries leading the research efforts, the research content, and the relationships between these factors. A comprehensive review is provided on the corrosion principles, materials, detection methods, and protection techniques for bronze. The study explores the corrosion principles and processes of bronze from a materials science perspective both before and after excavation. It summarizes non-destructive detection methods and examines specific factors that influence corrosion. Furthermore, the article reviews current corrosion protection methods for bronze and related protection materials, including commonly used strategies such as surface corrosion inhibitors and organic resin coatings for protection. It also discusses the potential application of advanced corrosion protection methods in the realm of metal materials in recent years to safeguard bronze. Proposing innovative solutions, the study suggests the possibility of constructing biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces to create a barrier isolating humid air from contacting bronze materials, thereby reducing the adhesion of corrosive media to the substrate and significantly diminishing the likelihood of corrosion. In conclusion, the article looks towards the future, considering the challenges and potential development directions for the corrosion protection of bronze and related protection materials.

Applying a mask R-CNN machine learning algorithm for segmenting electron microscope images of ceramic bronze-casting moulds

Material characteristics of casting moulds are crucial for understanding the evolution and diversification of bronze ritual vessel production in Bronze Age China. During relevant studies, a Back Scattered Electron (BSE) image detector is commonly employed to analyze mould microstructure, effectively revealing the volume ratios and shape features of the clay matrix, silt/sand particles, and voids. It is always challenging to analyze and cross-compare these BSE images quantitatively since they typically contain numerous phases with highly irregular shapes. Traditionally, time consuming manual point counting or multi-step image processing were used to obtain semi-quantitative results. Addressing these challenges, we have proposed a deep learning method called BCM-SegNet, an optimized Mask R-CNN-based algorithm for segmenting BSE images of bronze casting moulds and cores. Using the proposed method, key parameters, such as area, Feret diameter, roundness, and solidity of segmented particles, can be provided based on well segmented results, even for the images with complex background. Experimental outcomes show that the algorithm achieves a segmentation precision of 95% and an accuracy of around 91%, demonstrating its strong generalization capability. This study provides a significant foundation for micro-feature analysis of archaeological ceramic materials, classification of particles, and determination of technological processes in archaeological research.

Landscape, chronology and function of Bronze Age terrace-shaped settlements: A case study from the Youzhashan site in Yangxin County, Hubei Province, China

The Middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, constituting a region rich in metal resources, played an important role in the formation and early development of the Bronze Age civilization in China, mainly including mainly the southeastern part of Hubei Province, the northern part of Jiangxi Province and the southern part of Anhui Province. Geological surveys have revealed that this region, which stretches for 500 km along the Yangtze River, is rich in mines, and archaeological institutions have discovered a large number of Bronze Age mining and metallurgical sites in the region over the past three decades. This region is an important area for studying the rise and prosperity of the Chinese Bronze Age civilization. Therefore, exploring the production pattern of the bronze industry in the copper mining area in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, as well as the resource circulation network between this region and the northern part of China, has become a hot issue in Chinese archaeological research in recent years.From March to July 2023, Wuhan University and the Cultural Relics Bureau of Yangxin County formed a joint archaeological team to carry out an archaeological survey of mining and metallurgical sites in an independent geographic unit in the northern part of Yangxin County, Hubei Province, covering an area of 120 km2, and a total of 60 mining and metallurgical sites were discovered during the survey, and approximately two-thirds of the 60 sites exhibited the landscape with a more typical terrace-shaped site. In this study, we have carried out systematic archaeological exploration and drone mapping of the Youzhashan site, a typical terrace-shaped site in this region, and reconstructed the process of terrace-shaped site accumulation formation using materials from archaeological excavation, exploration and survey. In addition, scientific and technological tests were conducted on the metallurgical relics collected from the Youzhashan site, which revealed the occurrence e of copper smelting activities at the Youzhashan site, and we analyzed the processing system. In addition, the carbon samples excavated from the Youzhashan site were carbon dated to determine the exact date of the formation of the Youzhashan site.

A “set” of ancient bronze bells excavated in Changsha, Hunan Province, China

This article explores the criteria used to ascertain whether or not, and how, ancient Chinese bronze bells might form sets of musical instruments, thus clarifying their original intended use by ancient musicians. The focus is on ten bells unearthed from Changsha city in Hunan province in China, which date to the twelfth century BCE. A range of diverse relationships between these bells provide valuable insights that can be explored. Debate is ongoing among music historians regarding the nature of the bells. Some argue that the ten bells do not constitute a set of musical instruments because their designs and acoustic properties lack sufficient similarity and correlation. Conversely, another group of historians suggests that nine of the ten bells could indeed be seen as a set, but with the tenth bell being an outlier due to its distinct design. The third group of historians contends that the ten bells should be considered a musical set because of their organized sequence of consecutive semi-tones, while the design differences of the bells are less significant and can be overlooked if we focus on their musical functions. In this study, we scrutinize the assumptions made by these music historians, including their definitions of design similarity and the sequence of progressive pitches. Further previously overlooked criteria, such as the geographical proximity of these ten bells and others found in neighboring areas, and the incremental changes in the bell sizes, are also considered. Through the use of these criteria we aim to explore a wide range of relationships between ancient Chinese bells and to reassess what other new evidence the bells may offer to the study of ancient Chinese musical concepts. The concept of the chromatic scale discovered by ancient Chinese musicians was embodied on the casting of bronze bells.

Bronze Anthropomorphic Figurines from the Sacrificial Pits of Sanxingdui

This work gives a description of bronze figurines from the second sacrificial pit of Sanxingdui and their classification according to the affinity to different categories of ritual bronzes whose details they initially were. The classification helped to attribute small anthropomorphic images to one of the, earlier isolated by the author, stages of the technological evolution of Sanxingdui art of bronze casting from the JK2 sacrificial pit. Therefore, the chronologically meaningful typology of bronze figurines from the second sacrificial pit was constructed. As a result, the following groups of figurines were isolated: 1) figurines sitting at the roots of the “spirit trees”, 2) figurines that were details of the so-called “sacred altar” (“altar of spirits”), 3) figurines holding two-horned flat sceptres in their hands, 4) figurines kneeling on pedestals. Figurines sitting at the roots of the “spirit trees” belong to the first and second stages of the technological evolution of bronzes from the JK2 sacrificial pit. The sets of three figurines sitting at the roots of the “spirit trees” no. 2 and no. 3 represent in each case only one personage, so it can be seen from every side of the tree. All the figurines from the “sacred altar” must be dated to the third stage of the technological evolution of bronzes from JK2 like the artifact being discussed. Analogies to figurines from the “sacred altar” can be found among jades from the urn burials of Xiaojiawuji cemetery belonging to the late Neolithic Shijiahe culture of Hubei province. Bronze figurines also give an opportunity to reconstruct garments of the ancient inhabitants of Sanxingdui.

New insights on the analysis of the causes of glossy lustre on the surface of ancient Chinese bronze mirrors

Ancient Chinese bronzes, particularly bronze mirrors, often develop a fatty, oily, or greasy film on their surface, known as patina. This film can appear silvery, green, or black. Bronze mirror samples from the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476/403 BCE) to the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) were analyzed using a systematic approach that included super depth of field three-dimensional microscopy, scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and THM-Py-GC/MS. The analysis indicates the presence of advanced organic acid lead in the matrix of ancient bronze mirrors. The ancient existence of the lost wax method combined with the mould method of bronze casting technology is verified through simulation experiments and ancient literature. Ancient bronze mirrors may have utilized this technique, with advanced organic acid lead remaining in the mirror mould that entered the bronze mirror matrix during pouring. The Lead organic acids in bronze mirrors readily precipitate on the surface and cover the mirror. The change in the greasy sheen on the surface of the bronze mirror may be related to the degree of corrosion. If the mirror's corrosion level is low, the organic acid lead film remains transparent. If the level of corrosion is significant, the organic acid lead film may darken in color due to oxidation, aging, hydrolysis, or microbial activity.

Liquid residue analysis of Chinese bronze vessel of the Han Dynasty

The bronzeware ‘Fang’ was prevalently used as a liquor vessel during the late Warring States and the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). In this paper, the liquid collected from a ‘Fang’ vessel of the Han Dynasty was analyzed by scientific techniques including high performance liquid chromatograph mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS), high-throughput sequencing (HTS) and polarizing microscope (PM). A variety of organic compositions, microbial communities and damaged starch grains were identified, suggesting the liquid is presumably the residue of liquor produced through cereal-based fermentation. Upon examing the historical literatures, the residue is speculated to be millet liquor made by following the procedures of immersing and steaming raw material, adding wheat yeast, stirring, saccharifying, fermenting, etc. The taste of the liquor is assumed to be mild, with a blend of sweet, slightly sour, and bitter taste. This paper can yield new insight into the research of archaeological organic remains and provide evidence for exploring the brewing technology of the Han Dynasty.

"View Wisps of Smoke Rising from The Stove Again"

Chinese calligraphy is the carrier of cultural heritage and has profound cultural connotations. The origin of Chinese calligraphy can be traced back to the ancient oracle bone inscriptions and Chinese bronze inscriptions period, which has a history of several thousand years. It is a key element of Chinese culture and an important means to inherit China's excellent traditional culture in the new era. Under the impact of information technology and “fast food ” culture, various computer fonts and personalized fonts have emerged, and people tend to use some "odd" fonts, and their cultural awareness is gradually weakened. In the new era, Chinese calligraphy culture is full of vigor, which requires us to deeply understand the essence of calligraphy culture, respect history and culture better, enhance cultural identity, and firmly believe in culture. We should adapt to the development of science and technology, using artificial intelligence technology to add new energy to traditional culture, inherit the historical context better, create an atmosphere where everyone strives to be a cultural inheritor, and carry forward the spirit of writing.

Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China

The collection of twelve bronze artifacts discovered in Xichuan provides invaluable historical insights into the Warring States period (476 BC to 221 BC) of ancient China. To investigate their fabrication techniques and current state of preservation, a comprehensive analysis was conducted using a metallographic microscope, a scanning electron microscope, and an electron spectrometer to examine the microstructure and elemental composition of the artifacts. The findings revealed that the copper content in these bronze artifacts varied between 41.82% and 87.95%, the tin content ranged from 6.79% to 46.88%, and the lead content was less than 28.96%. The microstructure exhibited an α-solid-solution dendritic-crystal-segregation structure, with a substantial amount of (α + δ) eutectic distributed in an island-like pattern. Lead was dispersed unevenly, appearing as small granules and large ellipsoids. The composition of these weapons aligned with their intended use, adhering to the manufacturing standards of traditional Chinese bronzes. However, their state of preservation was suboptimal, necessitating immediate protective measures. This study contributes physical evidence to the research on early Chinese bronze production and offers scientific guidance for the conservation and restoration of these bronze artifacts.

원삼국·야요이시대 한·일 소형방제동경의 전개

The ‘Small-scale Imitation Bronze Mirrors(小形仿製銅鏡)’ surveyed in Korea and Japan during the Proto Three Kingdoms·Yayoi(弥生) period have been assumed to have a one-way inflow from a specific area based on the frequency and distribution pattern of excavations. However, due to the lack of background and purpose of the Bronze Mirrors usage custom, the view that Korean excavations were obtained in Japan along with the making larger bronze weapon is drawing attention. This Yayoi social image and solidarity approach makes it difficult to make a balanced interpretation of Korean data. In particular, there is room for reconsideration when looking at relics by adding Korean data to the genealogical relationship between the early small-scale imitation bronze mirror mold and some patterns identified in Kyushu(九州). Accordingly, this paper attempts to analyze the small-scale imitated bronze mirror found in Korea and Japan during the Proto Three Kingdoms Period based on formal studies to reveal the changes, and to clarify the diffusion structure and significance of objects through an approach considering the social background at that time. There are eight main properties of the small-scale imitated bronze mirror, and a total of six forms can be derived by combining them. Each type is confirmed in both Korea and Japan, and the tendency to change according to the overall appearance shows high similarity regardless of region. However, differences can be confirmed in the patterns of major position, the shape around the ring(鈕座文樣), and the method of using the object. In Korea, there are common cases in which it is accompanied by the chinese bronze mirrors(漢鏡), centered on the pattern of bracken designs(蕨手文) as a major use, but in Japan, the linked-arc designs(連弧文) is mainly used separately from the Chinese bronze mirror. At the same time, in the process of sharing small-scale imitated mirrors, Korea shares exclusive ‘Prestige goods(威勢品)’ between cases in which Chinese bronze mirror or multiple small-scale imitated bronze mirror are buried, and plagiarization(盜用) is taking place around them. On the other hand, in Japan, groups that do not own Chinese bronze mirror share a small-scale imitated bronze mirror, and theft and control of Chinese bronze mirror is carried out. These patterns of spread in each region are confirmed to be exclusive in a way that is not shared according to the form of burial of bronze mirror, but it was interpreted that multiple exchanges were made through particular change tendency in each region, the existence of the small-scale imitated bronze mirror which was made by same mold, and the similarity of the overall appearance.

MakeBronze: An interactive system to promote Chinese bronze culture in children through hands-on experience with lost-wax casting

Chinese bronze is a significant symbol of Chinese rich history and culture. However, disseminating bronze culture to children is challenging due to the lack of effective approaches to engage them. A survey of 467 Chinese children showed that their knowledge of bronzes primarily comes from traditional teaching methods, such as books and exhibitions. Hands-on opportunities for children to interact with bronzes and experience how they were made thousands of years ago are rare. Therefore, we designed MakeBronze, an interactive system mainly composed of a robotic arm, a drawing tablet, and cameras to allow children to experience the lost-wax casting and create their own artifacts. A study with 60 children showed that MakeBronze could better help them understand the fabrication process and raise their interest in bronze culture. Our work offers insights into how technologies that are easily accessible to children can be exploited for bronze culture preservation.

New solidification simulation reveals the secret of the hidden metal cores in ancient Chinese bronzes

Regardless of the tremendous number of studies on ancient Chinese bronzes and fruitful understanding of the raw materials, technologies and their cultural significance, many related issues have still not been tackled. In particular, it has been known for decades that the legs of Shang and Zhou bronzes have metal cores, but their specific function remains ambiguous. In this work, the Finite Element Method is applied to simulate the pouring and solidification process of bronze cores of different sizes. The findings illustrate that throughout the casting process, the metal core not only maintains the uniformity of the bronze and reducing its’s wall thickness but also lowers the temperature of the surrounding alloy liquid, serving as a casting chill. Specifically, the metal core allows elimination of over 60% of casting defects. In comparison with more widespread clay cores, metal cores help produce less shrinkage porosity, therefore prevent cracking of the legs that is usually caused by different shrinkage rates between the clay core and the metal wall. In summary, the use of metal cores in ancient Chinese bronzes reveals a deep knowledge about the metal properties and the solidification process since the Chinese late Shang period (ca. 1250–1045 BC).

A VIEW FROM THE COUNTRYSIDE: RADIOCARBON CHRONOLOGY FOR ZAOLINHETAN OF THE PRE-ZHOU CULTURE IN EARLY DYNASTIC CHINA

ABSTRACTThe conquest of the Shang Dynasty at Anyang around 1046 BCE by the Zhou is one of the major events for not only Chinese Bronze Age but also early interaction between the pastoralist groups from the Eurasian Steppes and agriculture ones in the Central Plains of China. It is well-known from historical texts that the pre-Zhou people lived in the ancient Bin region (豳), the exact location of which is unclear, but most likely in the Jing River valley. At some point the leader Gugong Danfu (古公亶父) moved from Bin to the capital Qi (Zhouyuan), which preceded the Zhou invasion of Anyang. We have produced a new high resolution radiocarbon chronology for Zaolinhetan, a small settlement in the pre-Zhou heartland. This shows not only an exceptionally long chronological span for the site, but also a different phasing compared to the traditional pottery typology, which raises new questions regarding the regional variation of pottery typologies. Intriguingly, the analysis also reveals a rapid abandonment of Zaolinhetan around 1100 BCE, at the same time many larger sites, such as Zhouyuan, which later became the capital of the Western Zhou dynasty, were significantly expanding. We argue that the drastic decline of Zaolinhetan as revealed by the substantial number of radiocarbon dates and probably also the movement of pre-Zhou political center from Bin to Qin, was part of bigger picture that involved a range of social and environmental factors.

Corrosion of ancient Chinese bronze fragments from different periods and protective effect of menthol coating

Chinese ancient bronze fragments from three periods of history were investigated in terms of the characteristics of substrate and patina. The non-destructive protective effect of menthol coating was verified. Patinas on the fragments of the Spring and Autumn period, Warring State period, and Han Dynasty all contain the major components CuCl2·3Cu(OH)2 and Cu2(OH)2CO3. The residual components, some oxides and chlorides of Pb and Sn, show no evident distribution trend in the patinas except PbCl2 is segregated beneath the patina of the Han dynasty fragment. Menthol coating shows a consistently protective ability for these patinated fragments. However, its sublimation is strongly affected by ambient temperature and relative humidity (RH). Menthol coating with an initial thickness of ∼500 µm could effectively protect the fragments for 328 h under 23 ℃ with 54% RH while for only 42 and 2 h respectively under 25 ℃with 100% RH and 35 ℃ with 100% RH.

A new FTIR spectrophotometric method for estimating the firing temperature of ceramic bronze-casting moulds from the Houma foundry, China

The ceramic piece-mould casting technology is a unique feature of ancient Chinese bronze production. Firing temperature was undoubtedly one of the important elements in mould production. However, firing temperatures determined by existing analytical techniques are controversial. This study establishes an innovative new FTIR spectrophotometric method to estimate the firing temperature of ceramic moulds. In the clay-containing material the absorbance ratio of clay’s SiO stretching peak to quartz’ (A1030/A1082) can divide the firing temperatures into three groups: below 500 °C, between 500 °C and 800 °C, and above 800 °C. The ratio is negatively correlated with firing temperature at 500–800 °C, enabling firing temperature at this range to be better estimated. This finding was applied to the measurement of firing temperatures of ceramic bronze-casting moulds from three Chinese Bronze Age foundries: Houma, Anyang and Yaoheyuan. It was found that the Houma moulds were generally fired at above 800 °C, the Anyang moulds fired at a wide range from below 500 °C to above 800 °C, and the Yaoheyuan moulds fired at below 500 °C, indicating chronological development and regional difference in mould production during the Chinese Bronze Age (c.18th–5th century BCE).

Design Ritual into Modern Product: A Case Study of Chinese Bronze Ware

Bronze wares make up some of the most important bronze artifacts in ancient China’s Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties. They carry rich historical, cultural and artistic information. In order to enable modern people to reflect on the ancient through products, an important research topic that must be considered is how to carry out innovative designs with bronze ware and how to add value to the development of cultural creative industries so as to promote sustainable cultural development. This study puts forward a research framework for the innovative design of bronze ware. Based on analysis of relevant cases, such as a purple copper antique wine vessel, the “Qing Niao” (“Blue Bird”) asking love wine cup and the HIBIKI ware wine glass, the study summarizes the innovative design strategy of modern transformation design of bronze ware. From the perspectives of functional attributes, cultural symbols, cultural identity and emotional resonance, the study finally proposes three design ideas: antiqued design, simplified design and reconstructed design. The study presents a research model which still needs to be verified in future studies. We hope that the model can integrate the principles of sustainability into the modern transformation design of cultural relics.