Chinese Bronze Research Articles

Study on manufacturing process of ancient Chinese bi-metallic bronze Ge

Among ancient Chinese bronze ordnances, bi-metallic weapons reflect the superb manufacturing level, and exhibit important research and historical values. Up to now, many ancient bi-metallic bronze swords have been unearthed in China, and their manufacture process has been intensively analyzed. In this paper, two bi-metallic bronze Ges were discovered and studied for the first time, which were identified as the Chu Ge dated to the Warring States Period (475 BC–221 BC), and a possible manufacturing process was proposed, regarding their morphologies, microstructures, and chemical compositions. According to excavation information and typological characteristics, we deduce that these two Ges belong to a halberd, called the “double-Ge halberd.” The present work is helpful to understand the ancient metallurgical and casting technologies during the Warring States Period, and provides new technical evidences for archeology and metallurgy history.

Trans-Asiatic exchange of glass, gold and bronze: analysis of finds from the late prehistoric Pangkung Paruk site, Bali

Abstract

Forgeries of Ancient Chinese Bronze from Middle Ages

Forgeries of Ancient Chinese Bronze from Middle Ages

Analysis of grooved ceramic vessels from the early Chinese Bronze Age site of Yanshi Shangcheng: Preliminary evidence of food preparation methods through starch analysis

A non-destructive method is used to recover starch from kecaopen grooved vessel sherds from the early Bronze Age site of Yanshi Shangcheng (“Shang city at Yan­shi”), located in the Yellow River valley of northern China (Shang Dynsaty/Erligang period). A taxonomic method using morphological and morphometric characteristics identifies extracted starch as millets, Job's tears, snakegourd root, and Triticeae grasses, such as wheat and barley. A few starch grains identified as acorn and tuber (such as lily or yam) were also identified. Damaged starch grains from the ancient starch assemblage share similarities with ground modern reference samples. This suggests that grooved vessels were used to mill plant elements and grind foodstuffs, perhaps to dehusk seeds and make flour from dried roots and acorns in the same way that grinding-stones were used in preceding periods. This hypothesis is supported by the form of the kecaopen vessel, the texture of its inner surface, and modern-use analogy. Plant taxa identified from kecaopen scrapings at Yanshi Shangcheng are similar to economically important taxa identified from scrapings of grinding-stones from preceding periods. This suggests a long continuity in plant processing methods and a long tradition of food preparation based on grinding plant elements, such as seeds, roots, tubers, and acorns.

Cold‐worked and annealed bronze objects and relevant motif techniques in the Chinese Bronze Age: Analysis of bronze sheets found at Songjia cemetery in Shaanxi, China

Six thin Chinese bronze chariot accessory sheets from Songjia cemetery in Shaanxi province were dated to the late Western Zhou dynasty (ninth to eighth centuries bce) and analysed for their elemental composition and motif techniques. The objects were cold worked and annealed with embossed motifs and carved lines. This is the only case of cold working and annealing with embossed motifs and carved lines in China; these techniques may have come from or been influenced by other cultures. These findings are important for revealing the development of the cold‐working, annealing techniques and relevant motif techniques in China.

Cultural Interaction Patterns in the Bronze Age: Ritual Bronze Artifacts from Korea and Japan

This study focuses on ritual bronze items that are very informative for reconstructing cultural ties and migrations between Korea and Japan in 400 BC to 300 AD. Their large-scale introduction to Korea is related to the culture of Korean-type daggers, whose distribution center was located in northwestern Korea. We give a detailed description of Bronze Age artifacts, including weapons and ritual items from that area. They occur mostly in single burials with a complex construction, possibly attesting to high social status. In Japan, Korean-type artifacts fi rst appear in northern Kyushu during the Yayoi age, in burials with wooden coffi ns and urns. The analysis of molds for casting narrow-bladed daggers, socketed spearheads, and picks suggests that Korean-type items spread from northern Kyushu. Late Yayoi ritual bronze artifacts include mostly mirrors of the Han type, evidently indicating migrations from the mainland.

The Cultural Landscape of the Chinese Bronze Age

The Chinese Bronze Age culture from the 19th to the 1st century BC can be divided into four zones: the Central Plain in the middle and the lower Yellow River region; the Northern zone along the Great Wall; the Southern zone, south to the middle and the lower Yangzi River; the Southwestern zone covering the upper Yangzi River. In each zone, bronzes are not only different in types and styles but also function differently responding to the processes of the early state formation and social development. More precisely, in the first zone, there are mainly ritual bronzes, serving as symbols of the social and political hierarchy. In the second zone, there are mainly utilitarian items such as weapons, tools, bronzes of everyday use, ornaments, as well as horse-chariot fittings. Bronze musical instruments characterise the third zone. And bronzes of the fourth zone are realistic or symbolic in style, depicting scenes of social life. Though having different cultural origins and characteristics, the four zones communicate with and influence each other continuously, creating a dynamic cultural landscape of the Chinese Bronze Age.

The Cultural Landscape of the Chinese Bronze Age

The Chinese Bronze Age culture from the 19th to the 1st century BC can be divided into four zones: the Central Plain in the middle and the lower Yellow River region; the Northern zone along the Great Wall; the Southern zone, south to the middle and the lower Yangzi River; the Southwestern zone covering the upper Yangzi River. In each zone, bronzes are not only different in types and styles but also function differently responding to the processes of the early state formation and social development. More precisely, in the first zone, there are mainly ritual bronzes, serving as symbols of the social and political hierarchy. In the second zone, there are mainly utilitarian items such as weapons, tools, bronzes of everyday use, ornaments, as well as horse-chariot fittings. Bronze musical instruments characterise the third zone. And bronzes of the fourth zone are realistic or symbolic in style, depicting scenes of social life. Though having different cultural origins and characteristics, the four zones communicate with and influence each other continuously, creating a dynamic cultural landscape of the Chinese Bronze Age.

Animal use in a Shang Village: The Guandimiao zooarchaeological assemblage

AbstractChinese Bronze Age zooarchaeological data sets have almost exclusively been derived from large, urban centres and often from elite contexts. The Anyang period (ca. 1250–1050 BCE) village site of Guandimiao fills an important lacuna as a small, non‐elite, rural site. The large urban sites of the Chinese Bronze Age are thought to have been more centres of animal consumption than of stock rearing, and so, Guandimiao presents the first glimpse of a possible production site. In addition, the near total excavation of the original village affords a rarely fine‐grained understanding of context allowing us to distinguish broadly between domestic, ritual‐related, and mortuary assemblages. These assemblages show differences in relative quantities of taxa, in body part distribution, bone modification, and taphonomy, giving additional insight into animal‐related human behaviour at the site. In addition, a variety of lines of evidence demonstrates a large dog‐related taphonomic bias, a subject that is generally ignored in Chinese zooarchaeology. Finally, the survivorship curves for pig and cattle generally show gradual attrition with a significant proportion of older animals, in contrast with contemporaneous Shang urban sites. This fact, plus the fact that the sex analysis performed on the pig mandibles demonstrated that they were nearly all female, supports the hypothesis that Guandimiao was a site of livestock raising and origin point for urban provisioning.

Changes in Bronze Age Culture Before the Emergence of Lute-shaped Bronze Swords - Focusing on Weiyingzi Culture in Liaoxi area

Weiyingzi Culture was early Bronze Age culture developed around Dalinghe and Xiaolinghe River in the west of Yoha. The period was approximately between 1300 - 1000 B.C and the culture was characterized by dominance of Material Culture of the Steppe region, relics including Zhongyuan-style bronze ritual ware, tomb system using wooden coffins, and so on. The typical type of the Culture was earthen cookware with three legs which was represented by flower-pattern decoration along the mouth (huabiankouyanli, 花邊口沿 鬲 ), patternless blown belly (tongfuli, 筒腹 鬲 ), and combined form of flat-bottom and patternless rice bowel (bo, 鉢). This study attempted a preliminary study for reinvestigation on the characteristics and formation process of Weiyingzi Culture by removing differences in recognition and errors in previous studies on such themes and finding out inherent characteristics and external factors of the Culture. In conclusion, one of the reasons for the formation of Weiyingzi Culture in around 1300 B.C. was introduction of Material Culture of the Steppe region, which was also found in the surrounding areas such as Hebei, southeast of Inner Mongolia, and Fuxin. In consideration of the distribution status and characteristics of buried ritual bronzeware in Zhongyuan and that the Material Culture of the Steppe was widely found in Shanxi and north region of Shanxi along the migration route of the Steppe tribe, it was assumed that the migration route of the Weiyingzi Culture was via Ordos Plateau, passing through Liaoxi Zoulang region in the northeast of Hebei. Weiyingzi Culture is suspected to have brought by those who contacted Zhongyuan Culture. Meanwhile, it was noted that Weiyingzi Culture has a few significant factors inherent in Gaotaishan. Since Gaotaishan culture had also strong characteristics of Steppe Culture, it was suspected that the people who remained in that area could accept Steppe Culture easily. As for the surrounding areas, community group who had strong color of Upper Zhangjiayuan Culture advanced to the borderline region with Hebei. Xiquegou-decendant community group who had more connected with Lower Xiajiadian Culture advanced to the borderline regions with southeast of Inner Mongolia and Liaoxi. In the borderline regions with Liaoxi and Liadong, community group of Gaotaishan culture lived there. People in those areas accepted Material Culture of the Steppe region which started to get in from the west without much resistance while the Lower Xiajiadian Culture that had dominated these areas for about 500 years still remained. In that aspect, there was high possibility of significant level of affinity and cultural exchange, although the background cultures were different to each other. It was found that part of natives who remained in Liaoxi area after being subjected to Lower Xiajiadian Culture had blood ties and cultural connections with Gaotaishan culture in the East. Based on that, it was assumed that they selectively accepted Material Culture of the Steppe region flown into that area via Zhongyuan and Hebei and contributed to the formation of Weiyingzi Culture.

Chinese Ritual Bronzes, and their presence in Portuguese Collections

Chinese Ritual Bronzes, and their presence in Portuguese Collections

Bronze and Stone: The Cult of Antiquity in Song Dynasty China by Yunchiahn C. Sena

Reviewed by: Bronze and Stone: The Cult of Antiquity in Song Dynasty China by Yunchiahn C. Sena Jianjun Mei (bio) Yunchiahn C. Sena. Bronze and Stone: The Cult of Antiquity in Song Dynasty China. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2019. xiv, 220 pp. Hardcover, isbn 978-02-95-74457-5. The rise and development of “the study of bronze and stone” (jinshixue) during the Song dynasty (960–1279) has been a topic of considerable interest among scholars working on the cultural history of premodern China for some time, as [End Page 309] exemplified, for instance, by Chen Fang-mei’s Qingtongqi yu Songdai weihuashi (Bronzes and Cultural History of the Song Dynasty) published in 2016. There has, however, been no in-depth study on the topic previously published in English. Therefore, Yunchiahn C. Sena’s Bronze and Stone: The Cult of Antiquity in Song Dynasty China is a much-needed work offering a concise and comprehensive exploration of the Song antiquarian movement, which, in the view of K. C. Chang (1981), is one of the three sources of scholarship for the establishment of present-day archaeology in China. Bronze and Stone comprises five parts: an introduction, three major chapters, and a conclusion. The introduction sets out to define the objectives and approach of this research and review previous studies of Song antiquarianism. It also highlights the parallels between Song antiquarianism and its counterpart in early modern Europe in participants’ “conscientious efforts to document, classify, and preserve ancient objects” (p. 15). The three chapters, arranged roughly in a chronological order, examine the development of the Song antiquarian movement, with chapter 1 focusing on “Ouyang Xiu’s Records of Collecting Antiquity,” chapter 2 on “Development of Song Antiquarian Writings,” and chapter 3 on “Archaistic Objects and Song Material Culture.” The conclusion offers an overview of the Song antiquarian movement, highlighting its three major aspects: antiquity as a source of historical authenticity, antiquity as idealized society, and the legacy of Song antiquarianism. Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) has been widely singled out in previous studies as one of the key figures in the rise of the Song antiquarian movement. His work Records of Collecting Antiquity, compiled in 1062, marked the beginning of Song antiquarian writing. There has been little research, however, delving deeply into Ouyang’s interest in rubbings, in particular, the intricate relationship between a stone stele and the rubbings taken from it. To our modern gaze, a rubbing can easily be seen as a mere (partial) “reproduction” of the original stone stele and thus lack authenticity. But Sena sees clearly beyond the notion of reproduction, and further raises a compelling argument that “a rubbing is always more faithful to the original condition of an object –that is, more authentic –than the object itself in its current state” (p. 51). It is through a thorough analysis of the concept of “historical authenticity” that Sena convincingly reveals the driving force behind Ouyang’s collecting activity, especially his remarkable interest in stele rubbings. Thus, in Sena’s opinion, the pursuit of historical authenticity did not just motivate Ouyang’s collection of rubbings, but also characterized the early stage of the Song antiquarian movement in which Ouyang played a leading role. In reviewing previous studies of the Song antiquarian movement, Sena notes astutely that it has been the predominant approach to view Song antiquaries as “a collaborative group that worked within the same set of parameters and for a common goal” (p. 68). She argues that “this approach –assuming a homogenous [End Page 310] perception of antiquity among Song antiquaries –is problematic, for it ignores their different intellectual agendas and social positions” (p. 68). Sena adopts an alternative approach, focusing attention on individual preferences and their wide influence. The person she chooses to highlight is Li Gonglin (1049–1106), the accomplished scholar and antiquarian, who has seldom received any detailed treatment in previous studies. According to Sena, Li stands out from other Song antiquaries because his collection included “Shang-Zhou ritual bronzes, jade ornaments, chariot fittings, and household items” (p. 82), indicating his strong interest in the physical form of objects as well as their secular functions. Furthermore, Li did not just study ancient objects from...

Направления культурного взаимодействия в эпоху палеометалла (на примере бронзовых ритуальных предметов с территорий Кореи и Японии)

Направления культурного взаимодействия в эпоху палеометалла (на примере бронзовых ритуальных предметов с территорий Кореи и Японии)

Guandimiao: a Shang village site and its significance

Abstract

Beyond ritual bronzes: identifying multiple sources of highly radiogenic lead across Chinese history

One of the greatest enigmas in the study of Bronze Age China is the source of highly radiogenic lead discovered in the copper-based objects of the Shang period (ca. 1500–1046 BC). Although being relatively rare in nature, such lead contributed over half of the lead consumed across a vast area from the Yellow River to the Yangtze. Identifying its source and supply network would significantly contribute to our understanding of how China achieved the largest metal production across Eurasia. The past thirty years of research have seen various proposals for the origin of this lead, including south-western China, the middle Yangtze River valley, the Qinling and Zhongtiao mountains, and even Africa. This paper attempts to illustrate the tempero-spatial pattern of this highly radiogenic lead using the largest possible databank. Furthermore, by going beyond the bronze data and investigating lead isotopes in non-metal objects, we confirm that multiple sources of highly radiogenic lead must have been used across Chinese history. In turn, this implies the feasibility of a multi-source model for the lead in the Shang bronzes.

Roderick B. Campbell, Archaeology of the Chinese Bronze Age: From Erlitou to Anyang

Roderick B. Campbell, Archaeology of the Chinese Bronze Age: From Erlitou to Anyang

From Alloy Composition to Alloying Practice: Chinese Bronzes

We propose a new methodology based on standard statistical processes for displaying and rigorously comparing the alloy composition of archaeological bronze alloys. Although traditional approaches using visual comparisons of histograms of alloying elements in an assemblage of archaeological objects are adequate for observing differences between these distributions, we argue that differences in sample size cannot be adequately accounted for without using a statistical approach. We demonstrate this methodology by comparing the alloy composition of bronzes from the sequence of Bronze Age cultures in Central China—Erlitou, Erligang (Zhengzhou, or early Shang), Anyang (late Shang) and Western Zhou. We suggest that this approach allows the identification and rigorous comparison of ‘regional alloying practices’, which in turn enables us to link the alloy composition of the objects with the intentions and skills of foundry workers.

Formation of black patina on an ancient Chinese bronze sword of the Warring States Period

In general, black patina is formed upon the surface of the ancient bronze mirrors. Recently, a kind of black patina is found on an ancient bronze sword, which was made 2500 years ago during the Warring States Period of China. In this paper, chemical compositions and microstructures of the black patina were characterized by using instruments including optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectrometer (Raman). The results revealed that the formation of the black patina on the bronze sword is due to two reasons: (1) high tin (Sn) content reaches to 22.92 wt%; (2) damp, wet and acid burial environment. Therefore, it conforms to the natural corrosion formation mechanism, i.e., after selective dissolution of elements Cu and Pb from the matrix, element Sn was oxidized and then, the gel-like SnO2·xH2O filled the vacancies left by the selective corrosion of Cu and Pb. This work will be helpful for better restoration and preservation of the bronze cultural relics.

Antiques Matters: Chinese Bronzes in Chang Sŭngŏp’s Paintings of Antiques and Flowers

이 논문은 뉴욕 메트로폴리탄미술관에 소장중인 장승업의 작품을 중심으로, 조선후기 유행했던 중국 골동품 收藏文化가 器皿折枝圖 제작에 미친 영향과 중국 청동기가 지니는 의미에 대한 연구이다. 조선후기 문인 문화를 羨望했던 중인계층은 중국의 골동품을 실제로 수집하기 시작하였는데, 이런 收藏文化가 유행하던 분위기 속에서 중국 청동기는 祭器에서 玩賞의 대상으로 그 기능이 확장되었다. 장승업은 19세기 말 중국 청동기와 화훼를 주요 소재로 器皿折枝圖라는 회화장르를 개척하였고, 器皿折枝圖의 주요 청동기 소재로 鼎形 향로와 明 宣德 향로를 사용하였다. 이 청동기들은 당시 중인계층의 수장가들이 매우 선호하던 종류의 수장품이었고, 그들의 문화적 세련미를 드러내는 수단으로써 기능하였다. 장승업의 器皿折枝圖는 실제 수장품을 그리거나 변형하여 표현했는데, 이로 인해 중국 古銅器의 실제 收藏에 대한 代用品으로 이용되기도 했을 것으로 보인다. 조선후기 중인계층의 중국 청동기에 대한 관심과 수장문화가 당시 회화제작에 중요한 역할을 하였음을 장승업의 器皿折枝圖를 통해 알 수 있다.

Pathological evidence reveals cattle traction in North China by the early second millennium BC

The use of cattle labour in antiquity is a worldwide well-discussed topic among researchers as it can shed light on the possible development trajectories of our communities over the past several millennia. Zooarchaeology can play a vital role in illuminating the history of cattle traction through observed pathologies on cattle bones linked to traction activity. Systemic zooarchaeological investigation is still underdeveloped in China, one of the likely early beneficiaries of animal labour exploitation in the world. Here, we apply the pathological index (PI) method, first developed by Bartosiewicz et al. on European assemblages, to Chinese Bronze Age cattle bones. Our results first confirm the wide applicability of the PI method with the involvement of Chinese control samples, which holds the potential to be applied as an effective tool in a larger geographical region. Our results also confirm the importance of cattle traction for the Late Shang states ( c. 1300–1046 BC) as previously proposed on the basis of disputed interpretations of oracle bone inscriptions as showing cattle ploughing, but also show that light cattle traction practices likely developed in China in the Bronze Age Erlitou ( c. 1750–1530 BC) and Early Shang ( c. 1600–1300 BC) periods. Cattle traction use in the Chinese Bronze Age may have facilitated the introduction and subsequent cultivation in China of wheat, an exotic cereal.