Supply Risk Research Articles

The asymmetric impact of oil price shocks on China stock market: Evidence from quantile-on-quantile regression

In this paper, we decompose oil price shocks into supply shocks, demand shocks, and risk shocks, and explore their asymmetric impact on China stock market. Applying the quantile-on-quantile regression approach, we find that supply shocks have no significant impact on China stock market which is in a bearish state, but positively affect the bullish market. Oil demand shocks have a greater positive impact on the bullish market than the bearish market. The negative risk shocks, suggesting a risk reduction, is beneficial for the stock market breaking away from the bearish state, but have no significant impact on the bullish market. Meanwhile, the positive risk shocks have a higher degree of negative influence on the bullish stock market than the bearish market.

Helium resource global supply and demand: Geopolitical supply risk analysis

Helium is considered a critical raw material by the USA, EU, Canada, and other jurisdictions, yet it has been overlooked in the resource sustainability literature, especially compared to metals and other extracted resources. Refined from hydrocarbon natural gas, 2019 global helium production was approximately 27,000 tonnes (160 million cubic meters). Produced mostly in USA, Qatar, and Algeria, it is transported as a cryogenic liquid and logistics are time-constrained. Using the Geopolitical Supply Risk (GeoPolRisk) method, we evaluated the supply risk of helium for ten importing economies from 2015 to 2019. Results show helium imports have a relatively high GeoPolRisk index (0.15–0.30), consistent with its classification as “critical”. Three distinct global regions (East Asia, Europe, and the Americas) each show a pattern of supply and variations in GeoPolRisk, depending on specific trade. Given growing use, particularly in East Asia, future challenges in supply and supply risk are highlighted.

Rail transport in Swedish wood supply – seasonal variation, system risks and mitigation costs

ABSTRACT This study examines the potential for reduced risks in roundwood transport by rail. The study quantifies seasonal variation and system risks under boreal conditions, as well as practical routines for managerial response to these. The study case is based on an integrated forest company with 11 supply terminals supplying coastal mills in mid-Sweden. The terminals were distributed from south to north Sweden, with six core terminals located in the interior- and mid-supply zones for coastal mills. The monthly flows ranged from 75 to 118% of the annual average and the monthly variability of terminal inflows was 67% higher for the interior than the mid-zone terminals. Comparing inflows between assortments, the lowest variability was for coniferous pulpwood (8%) and pine sawlogs (18%), increasing thereafter to deciduous pulpwood (28%) and spruce sawlogs (53%). Regarding rail system disturbances, the frequency of deviations from scheduled routes for the core terminals was 16–17%, resulting in canceled routes for 53–65% of deviations. Two mitigation scenarios were tested to reduce supply risks (scenario 1) and a combination of supply and system risks (scenario 2). These risk mitigation scenarios had only marginal effects on system costs (< 1%). The optimal solutions, however, involved a 4–5% reduction of truck transport output (m3km per period) and 7–8% increase in rail output. From the perspective of rail operations, interviews with service buyers and providers showed that the mitigation scenarios were fully feasible on an annual planning horizon. Further options are provided for quarterly, monthly, and weekly horizons.

Hydrothermal alteration and the remobilization of rare earth elements during reprecipitation of nano-scale apatite in phosphorites

Sedimentary phosphorites enriched in rare earth elements (i.e., REE) are an important reservoir of these critical metals and may have the potential to resolve the global REE supply risk in the future, which is widely distributed around world. However, the occurrence and utilizability of REE in phosphorites remain contentious. In this study, multiple-scale analysis techniques were used to investigate the mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of typical REE-enriched phosphorites from Zhijin, SW China. The mineralization was divided into two stages: early fluorapatite (Fap1) that formed during the sedimentary–diagenetic stage, and late fluorapatite (Fap2) that formed during the hydrothermal alteration stage. The in situ REE geochemical data (i.e., quantitative data and mapping analysis) and scanning electron microscopy images show that Fap1 is the main REE host phase, because it is abundant and high REE concentration. Data obtained by both laser-ablation–inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy reveal that most REE are resident in the lattice of nano-scale fluorapatite, which could be remobilized by hydrothermal fluids during the process of dissolution of nano-scale Fap1 and reprecipitation of micro-scale Fap2. In addition, the formation of synchysite-(Y) in the altered phosphorites involved reprecipitation of the mobilized REE. We suggest that F− and SO42− in fluids play a major role in the mobilization of REE in fluorapatite and that CO32− sourced from dolomite alteration contributes to the precipitation of REE. Our results indicate that REE in fluorapatite can be remobilized and further enriched by hydrothermal alteration to REE fluorocarbonates (the current predominant economic source of REE minerals). Overall, our results reveal that REE occur mainly in the lattices of fluorapatite and synchysite-(Y) in phosphorites, and provide new insights into the mineralization mechanism and industrial availability of REE-enriched phosphorites.

Green transition mineral supply risks: Comparing artisanal and deep-sea cobalt mining in a time of climate crisis

In the context of a climate crisis and accelerating green transition, companies are scrambling to secure supply over the coming decades, including through artisanal mining (ASM) and deep sea mining (DSM). These modes of extraction create distinct yet related risks, with for example some of the social risks of ASM justifying the environmental risks of DSM. Upstream companies follow different risk management strategies in relations to ASM and DSM. Risk shifting transfers risk-related responsibility via contracts with other entities within the mining sector. Risk fixing creates the bureaucratic and technocratic tools to prevent or resolve risk-related liabilities. Risk outsourcing occurs when non-industry members are asked to autonomously follow ‘clean minerals’ practices. In addition, downstream companies follow risk emotionalizing strategies through which they aim to shape customers’ perceptions and emotions towards their products and the associated risks. Finally, corporate sourcing needs for minerals tend to result in risk perpetuating, despite or even because of the risk management strategies identified here.

Replacing gas boilers with heat pumps is the fastest way to cut German gas consumption

The supply security of fossil gas has been disrupted by the Russo-Ukrainian War. Decisions to relocate the production and transport of gas have become so urgent that new long-term contracts are imminent that undermine the Paris Climate Agreement. Here, we simulate how quickly the addition of renewable electricity and the installation of heat pumps can substitute enough gas to reduce supply risk, while taking a decisive step towards meeting the Paris Agreement. Our bottom-up modelling, using Germany as an example, shows technical pathways on how installing heat pumps is one of the fastest ways to reduce gas consumption, in addition to reducing the load hours of gas-fired power plants. With targeted efforts, maximally 60% of gas from the Russian Federation can be substituted by 2025 with heat pumps and grid expansions, and enough electricity will remain available that the phase-out of coal and the entry into e-mobility will still be practicable.

Modeling of Stray Currents From Metro Intruding Into Power System Considering the Complex Geological Conditions in Modern Megacities

The risks of power supply in power systems attributed to stray currents caused by denser metro lines are increasing in modern megacities. Factors such as multi-layered soil and multiple metro operating lines (MOLs) make it more difficult to analyze dc coupling between the metro and power system. This article proposes a model for dc coupling of the metro and power system considering the two systems’ spatial information, the actual multi-layered soil, and the non-linear ionization of soil caused by stray currents. This article presents a dc coupling model suitable for studying multiple metro lines and large-scale power systems in modern megacities, which has an average relative error of 6.3% compared with experimental results. The neutral current of the transformer in a substation is up to 43 A (normal operation requires it to be less than 6 A in amplitude) under the influence of multiple MOL. The non-linear ionization of the soil near the power substations’ grounding network will decrease the soil resistance, this also results in greater dc currents intruding into power substations.

A 440-Year Reconstruction of Heavy Precipitation in California from Blue Oak Tree Rings

Abstract The variability of water year precipitation and selected blue oak tree-ring chronologies in California are both dominated by heavy precipitation delivered during just a few days each year. These heavy precipitation events can spell the difference between surplus or deficit water supply and elevated flood risk. Some blue oak chronologies are highly correlated with water year precipitation (r = 0.84) but are equally well correlated (r = 0.82) with heavy precipitation totals ≥25.4 mm (1 in., ≈95th percentile of daily totals, 1949–2004). The blue oak correlation with nonheavy daily totals is much weaker (&lt;25.4 mm; r = 0.55). Consequently, some blue oak chronologies represent selective proxies for the temporal and spatial variability of heavy precipitation totals and are used to reconstruct the amount and number of days with heavy precipitation in northern California from 1582 to 2021. Instrumental and reconstructed heavy precipitation totals are strongly correlated with gridded atmospheric river–related precipitation over the western United States, especially in central California. Spectral analysis indicates that instrumental heavy precipitation totals may be dominated by high-frequency variability and the nonheavy totals by low-frequency variance. The reconstruction of heavy precipitation is coherent with instrumental heavy totals across the frequency domain and include concentrations of variance at ENSO and biennial frequencies. Return period analyses calculated using instrumental heavy precipitation totals are representative of the return periods in the blue oak reconstruction despite the large differences in series length. Decadal surges in the amount, frequency, and interannual volatility of heavy precipitation totals are reconstructed, likely reflecting episodes of elevated atmospheric river activity in the past. Significance Statement Tree-ring chronologies of blue oak are highly correlated with precipitation delivered to northern California during just the heaviest days of precipitation each year. The reconstruction of heavy precipitation indicates decadal episodes with a high frequency of extreme precipitation. These episodes of frequent heavy precipitation likely arose because of elevated atmospheric river activity and are relevant to the analysis of water supply and flood hazard in California.

Cost‐sharing procurement contracts with embedded reciprocal behavior

AbstractThis paper develops a simple linear formulation of cost‐sharing procurement contracts into which reciprocal behavior is embedded. The comparative static analysis shows that the reciprocal behavior is negatively associated with the incentive. Both the cost uncertainty and the supplier's risk aversion have a positive influence on the reciprocal behavior and cooperation between buyers and suppliers. Compared to the second‐best solution in the existing principalagent literature under asymmetric information, this paper finds that the presented model is a Pareto improvement under modest restriction even if cost‐reducing effort is unverifiable. The reciprocal model has the properties of first‐best optimal social surplus.

A comprehensive research on analyzing risk factors in emergency supply chains

PurposeUnforeseen events can disrupt the operational process and negatively impact emergency resources optimization and its supply chain. A limited number of studies have addressed risk management issues in the context of emergency supply chains, and this existing research lacks inbuilt and practical techniques that can significantly affect the reliability of risk management outcomes. Therefore, this paper aims to identify and practically analyze the specific risk factors that can most likely disrupt the normal functioning of the emergency supply chain in disaster relief operations.Design/methodology/approachThis paper has used a three-step process to investigate and evaluate risk factors associated with the emergency supply chain. First, the study conducts a comprehensive literature review to identify the risk factors. Second, the research develops a questionnaire survey to validate and classify the identified risk factors. At the end of this step, the study develops a hierarchical structure. Finally, the research investigates the weighted priority of the validated risk factors using the fuzzy-analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) methodology. Experts were required to provide subjective judgments.FindingsThis paper identified and validated 28 specific risk factors prevalent in emergency supply chains. Based on their contextual meanings, the research classified these risk factors into two main categories: internal and external risk factors; four subcategories: demand, supply, infrastructural and environmental risk factors; and 11 risk types: forecast, inventory, procurement, supplier, quality, transportation, warehousing, systems, disruption, social and political risk factors. The most significant risk factors include war and terrorism, the absence of legislative rules that can influence and support disaster relief operations, the impact of cascading disasters, limited quality of relief supplies and sanctions and constraints that can hinder stakeholder collaboration. Therefore, emergency supply chain managers should adopt appropriate strategies to mitigate these risk factors.Research limitations/implicationsThis study will contribute to the general knowledge of risk management in emergency supply chains. The identified risk factors and structural hierarchy taxonomic diagram will provide a comprehensive risk database for emergency supply chains.Practical implicationsThe research findings will provide comprehensive and systemic support for respective practitioners and policymakers to obtain a firm understanding of the different risk categories and specific risk factors that can impede the effective functioning of the emergency supply chain during immediate disaster relief operations. Therefore, this will inform the need for the improvement of practices in critical aspects of the emergency supply chain through the selection of logistics and supply chain strategies that can ensure the robustness and resilience of the system.Originality/valueThis research uses empirical data to identify, categorize and validate risk factors in emergency supply chains. This study contributes to the theory of supply chain risk management. The study also adopts the fuzzy-AHP technique to evaluate and prioritize these risk factors to inform practitioners and policymakers of the most significant risk factors. Furthermore, this study serves as the first phase of managing risk in emergency supply chains since it motivates future studies to empirically identify, evaluate and select effective strategies that can eliminate or minimize the effects of these risk factors.

Concepts of circular economy for sustainable management of electronic wastes: challenges and management options.

The electronic and electrical industrial sector is exponentially growing throughout the globe, and sometimes, these wastes are being disposed of and discarded with a faster rate in comparison to the past era due to technology advancements. As the application of electronic devices is increasing due to the digitalization of the world (IT sector, medical, domestic, etc.), a heap of discarded e-waste is also being generated. Per-capita e-waste generation is very high in developed countries as compared to developing countries. Expansion of the global population and advancement of technologies are mainly responsible to increase the e-waste volume in our surroundings. E-waste is responsible for environmental threats as it may contain dangerous and toxic substances like metals which may have harmful effects on the biodiversity and environment. Furthermore, the life span and types of e-waste determine their harmful effects on nature, and unscientific practices of their disposal may elevate the level of threats as observed in most developing countries like India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and China. In the present review paper, many possible approaches have been discussed for effective e-waste management, such as recycling, recovery of precious metals, adopting the concepts of circular economy, formulating relevant policies, and use of advance computational techniques. On the other hand, it may also provide potential secondary resources valuable/critical materials whose primary sources are at significant supply risk. Furthermore, the use of machine learning approaches can also be useful in the monitoring and treatment/processing of e-wastes. HIGHLIGHTS: In 2019, ~ 53.6 million tons of e-wastes generated worldwide. Discarded e-wastes may be hazardous in nature due to presence of heavy metal compositions. Precious metals like gold, silver, and copper can also be procured from e-wastes. Advance tools like artificial intelligence/machine learning can be useful in the management of e-wastes.

Optimizing investment and transportation decisions for the European natural gas supply chain

We address the European natural gas supply chain with several tiers, including producers, mid-streamers, and consumers, where natural gas and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) could be traded via long-term contracts or spot markets. This network problem is formulated as a non-linear mixed-integer programming model which provides the optimal production and export decisions of producers, import and storage decisions of mid-streamers, and infrastructure investment decisions of European Union (EU) countries with respect to new pipelines and LNG regasification terminals that maximize the total social welfare in the EU natural gas market over a five-year horizon. We conduct several case studies to examine this network under different conditions. We first compare the actual and optimal decisions to provide insights. Then, we examine the effect of infrastructure decisions on social welfare. Our results reveal that new infrastructure investments increase the total social welfare by nearly three billion. In addition, we examine its sensitivity to the exclusion of Russian gas supply from the market with and without the infrastructure decisions. Results suggest that if Russian gas supply is excluded from the market, then the social welfare and cumulative natural gas consumption of 26 EU countries decrease by 10% and 15%, respectively and that considering infrastructure investments on LNG terminals and pipelines would reduce supply risk of consumer countries.

Structure, robustness and supply risk in the global wind turbine trade network

With the increasingly devastating impacts of climate change, wind energy demand has surged in recent decades, resulting in fierce competition and a complex trade structure in the wind turbine industry. Understanding the hidden risks for the global wind turbine trade network (GWTTN) is of great significance, but the topic has not yet been explored. This study fills this gap by employing complex network methodologies to investigate the GWTTN's structure and supply risks. Structure analyses featuring metrics including topology quantities, communities, and backbones reveal a core–periphery organization and an unbalanced concentration of exports and imports. The unparalleled influence of Europe, weakening of North America, dissolution of European clusters, and rise of Asia have been the main structural characteristics of the network in recent decades. A country disruption simulation, measured by the giant connected component, further manifests the robust yet fragile peculiarity of the GWTTN which implies the difficulty of risk control. Identified by the linear threshold model, the risk transmission path of supply cutoffs indicates the importance of complex trade links and mutual amplification effects in triggering large-scale contagion and market devastation. A redemption simulation strategy setting anti-risk capacity to vary across countries is also proposed to alleviate the aftermath of large-scale disruptions. The results show that enhancement of core countries and interception of key paths can demonstrably suppress supply risk. The policy suggestions based on these systematic investigations have enormous practical implications for the governance and development of the global sustainable energy industry.

Alkaline hydrolysis of photovoltaic backsheet containing PET and PVDF for the recycling of PVDF

Recovering fluorine from end-of-life products is crucial for the sustainable production and consumption of fluorine-containing compounds because fluorspar, an important natural resource for fluorine, is currently at a supply risk. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of chemically recycling a fluorine-containing photovoltaic (PV) backsheet for fluoropolymer recycling. Herein, a PV backsheet consisting of laminated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) was treated with different concentrations of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to hydrolyze the PET layer to water-soluble sodium terephthalate (Na2TP) and to separate pure PVDF layer as a solid material. Optimized alkaline conditions (up to 10 M NaOH at 100 °C for 2 h) were determined, under which 87% of the PET layer could be decomposed without any significant deterioration of the PVDF layer. The hydrolysis kinetics of PET layer in NaOH could be explained by the modified shrinking-core model. Considering that the mass of end-of-life PV panels in Japan is estimated to increase to approximately 280,000 tons per year by 2036, PV backsheets are attractive candidates for fluoropolymer recycling, which can be effectively achieved using chemical recycling approach demonstrated in this study.

Costs and benefits of improving water and sanitation in slums and non-slum neighborhoods in Dhaka, a fast-growing mega-city

Mega-cities like Dhaka in Bangladesh face urban planning challenges to provide residents access to safe water and sanitation. This paper presents the results of a large-scale survey focusing on slum and non-slum residents' experiences with urban water supply, water pollution and flood risks and associated costs of illness (COI). The latter are compared to residents' willingness to pay (WTP) for improved water services. We test differences in public health risks between slum and non-slum residents and the value of improved water and sanitation in a discrete choice experiment closing the loop between water supply, wastewater and stormwater. We find that a substantial share of a Dhaka household's disposable income is spent on water, varying between 3 and 21% across neighborhoods. Over 10% of the residents link poor health to poor water quality and face higher COI. Higher income non-slum residents appear to have a higher absolute WTP, but slum residents are willing to contribute a higher share of their income to the improvement of urban water management. These results provide important value cues to support large-scale investments in improved water and sanitation infrastructure and their cost recovery.

Impact of COVID-19 on the End in Supply Chain of Fresh E-commerce Products and Risk Control

COVID-19 has impacted many industries and caused severe disruptions in the food supply chain, which has also had a significant impact on the lives of people around the world. Some researchers have pointed out the long and short-term impact of the epidemic on the fresh produce supply chain, but there is a gap in research on the prevention and control of risks at the end of the fresh produce supply chain. Therefore, this paper uses a case study approach to analyze the challenges encountered by fresh produce e-commerce in the context of the epidemic from multiple perspectives and provide recommendations for risk prevention and control. It is found that the risks at the end of the fresh food supply chain are mainly in the areas of environmental risk, supply and demand risk, and transport risk. In response to the above risks, companies need to improve the following aspects: cost reduction and loss, product quality control, and sales channel innovation to seize the opportunity to develop fresh food e-commerce and improve risk response mechanisms at the end of the fresh produce supply chain to drive its own development.

External supply risk of agricultural products trade along the Belt and Road under the background of COVID-19.

Agricultural product trade along the Belt and Road (B&R) is an important part of the international food security system, the vulnerabilities of which have been highlighted by the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the complex network analysis, this study analyzes the characteristics of agricultural products trade network along the B&R. It also combines the effects of COVID-19 with the import trade volume of agricultural products in countries along the B&R to build a risk supply model of agricultural products. The results show that: (1) In 2021, the spatial correlation structure of agricultural products trade along the B&R became increasingly sparse, and the network connectivity and density also decreased. (2) The network showed obvious scale-free distribution characteristics and obvious heterogeneity. Five communities emerged under the influence of the core node countries, but the formation of community in 2021 had obvious geopolitical characteristics. (3) Under the influence of the COVID-19 epidemic, the number of countries with medium-risk and high-risk level along the route facing external dependence risk (REDI), import concentration risk (RHHI) and COVID-19 epidemic risk (RRICI) increased in 2021, and the number of countries with extremely low-risk level decreased. (4) The dominant risk type of external supply of agricultural products along the route changed from compound risk type in 2019 to epidemic risk in 2021. Hence, the results can be expected to prevent external risk impact from reducing excessive concentration of agricultural products trade and excessive dependence on the external market.

Innovative multiple resource recovery pathways from EBPR wastewater treatment–derived sludge

Wastewater treatment–derived sludge is a growing concern. Environmental issues, rising sludge production rates, and stringent regulations create the necessity to seek for treatment and valorization alternatives. Sludge is a potential source of high-value materials which can be recovered and transformed into new products such as animal feeds; bioplastics; biofuels, biostimulants; or biobased fertilizers. Considering the current legal constraints hindering the use of certain waste streams, the objective of this work is to show the technical viability for obtaining multiple valuable products from sludge. The emphasis is placed on novel valorization pathways, such as microalgae and purple bacteria cultures growing over sludge. The obtained products are benchmarked against traditional methods for resource recovery such as direct land application and P recovery from ashes. Our results show, besides the nutrient (TKN 7.38, TP 4.41; K 0.47 g 100 g TS-1) and energy content (HHV 22.53 MJ Kg-1 TS), that sludge could be employed to produce a suitable growing medium for microalgae and purple bacteria cultures obtaining, in the latter, remarkable high contents of high-quality proteins (64.50 % dw) for potential valorization as animal feed ingredient. We also obtained nutrient rich microalgae biomass (TKN 7.10, TP 8.10; K 0.40 g 100 g TS-1) which could be used as inputs for biobased fertilizers or biostimulants preliminarily complying with the nutrient requirements in EU 2019/1009. Current global scenario, showing economic and supply risk uncertainties regarding food production inputs, generates the urgent need to find feasible pathways for obtaining recovered products such as the ones presented in this study.Graphical abstract

The Relationship Between Supply Chain, Risk Management and Safety Compliance in the Harum Manis Industry in Perlis, Malaysia

“Harun Manis” is a name given to a sweet mango cultivate in Perlis, Malaysia. Lately, the performance in the Harun Manis industry has been founded to be declining. Some organizations are aware of these issues related to owners' quality performance. This study investigates the relationship between supply chain, risk management, and safety compliance on quality performance in the “Harum Manis” Industry in Perlis, Malaysia. For this study, a quantitative method has been used. The questionnaire consists of 3 sections using respondents' personal information and a 5-point Likert scale regarding the variable. Questionnaires were also distributed to the owners of the “Harum Manis” industry. The acceptable Cronbach alpha value for each item is more than 0.8, and this questionnaire's content validity was based on research that had already been done. Non-probability sampling was used for this study. The results show that supply chain, risk management, safety compliance, and quality performance are strongly linked. The research found a link between the three independent variables and improving the "Harum Manis" industry in Perlis, even though there are some limits and problems. Keywords: Supply Chain, Risk Management; Safety Compliance; Quality Performance, Harun Manis Industry

Interstitial Zinc Boosted Light Tunability, Afterglow, and Ultrabright White Emission in Zinc Germanate (Zn2GeO4)

To reduce the burden of solid-state lighting and phosphor-converted light-emitting diode technologies on rare earth (RE) and avoid their potential supply risks, we have developed a RE-free Zn2GeO4 (ZGeO) microcrystalline phosphor. It was synthesized by a simple and scalable solid-state reaction of ZnO and GeO2 at 1200 °C. High-temperature synthesized ZGeO demonstrated color tunable emission from bluish-white to green on changing the excitation wavelength from 265 to 335 nm with a photoluminescence quantum yield of 42 and 9%, respectively. They could also convert highly energetic X-ray to bluish-green light emission. First-principles calculations showed that bluish-white and green light emissions are linked to zinc interstitials present, respectively, in zinc (Zni2) and zinc–germanium rings (Zni1). These defects generated in large numbers via high-temperature annealing along with antisites boosted the generation of trapping centers leading to dual persistent luminescence (PerL) of white and green light for more than 60 min as well as exhibited radioluminescence. Luminescent ink based on ZGeO was fabricated and successfully tested for anticounterfeiting applications. An extra effort has been vested on making this solid-state processed ZGeO dispersible in water-soluble deep eutectic solvent which could be a game changer for its marketability. This material has great potential to become an efficient RE and dopant-free phosphor synthesized by a simple, scalable, and cost-efficient route for applications in solid-state lighting, display, and anticounterfeiting, having multifunctionalities such as PerL, tunability, and RL.