Reward Choice Research Articles

Blameable and Imperfect: A Study of Accountability and Risk-Taking

Many economic agents, including CEOs, physicians, entrepreneurs, and political leaders are entrusted with decision-making authority. These economic agents act as trustees who make risky decisions, impacting their own welfare and that of their stakeholders. Stakeholders often demand measures to hold these trustees more accountable for their risky decisions. Until now, research has not systematically explored investors’ or third-parties’ efforts to hold trustees accountable when stakeholders have voluntarily entered into such relationships. Using a novel laboratory experiment, we explore how different accountability mechanisms influence stakeholders’ and third-parties’ choices of reward or punishment towards trustee decisions. We also explore which accountability mechanism best nudges trustees towards decisions that maximizes social welfare. Our results contrast with the predictions of existing theories on social preferences and principal-agent models, which struggle to explain stakeholders’ persistent outcome bias. We propose that the stakeholders’ accountability decisions are best explained by a theory that captures responses to both the pure quality of decisions and the perceived luck of the decision maker, in other words, a good decision with moral luck theory.

Dopamine, Effort-Based Choice, and Behavioral Economics: Basic and Translational Research.

Operant behavior is not only regulated by factors related to the quality or quantity of reinforcement, but also by the work requirements inherent in performing instrumental actions. Moreover, organisms often make effort-related decisions involving economic choices such as cost/benefit analyses. Effort-based decision making is studied using behavioral procedures that offer choices between high-effort options leading to relatively preferred reinforcers vs. low effort/low reward choices. Several neural systems, including the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system and other brain circuits, are involved in regulating effort-related aspects of motivation. Considerable evidence indicates that mesolimbic DA transmission exerts a bi-directional control over exertion of effort on instrumental behavior tasks. Interference with DA transmission produces a low-effort bias in animals tested on effort-based choice tasks, while increasing DA transmission with drugs such as DA transport blockers tends to enhance selection of high-effort options. The results from these pharmacology studies are corroborated by the findings from recent articles using optogenetic, chemogenetic and physiological techniques. In addition to providing important information about the neural regulation of motivated behavior, effort-based choice tasks are useful for developing animal models of some of the motivational symptoms that are seen in people with various psychiatric and neurological disorders (e.g., depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease). Studies of effort-based decision making may ultimately contribute to the development of novel drug treatments for motivational dysfunction.

Evaluation of the Good Behavior Game with a child with fetal alcohol syndrome in a small‐group context

We evaluated the Good Behavior Game (GBG) on levels of disruptive behavior of a 4‐year‐old boy with fetal alcohol syndrome during small‐group reading time. We also compared the effectiveness of and preference for choice of a reward to a surprise reward for winning the GBG. Results showed that the GBG was effective to decrease disruptive behavior to similar levels as peers in the group. We did not observe a difference in the effectiveness of the GBG with a choice of reward compared to a surprise reward, but the participant preferred having a choice of reward. We discuss the potential benefit of utilizing the GBG to reduce disruptive behavior during small‐group learning instruction for individual students with disabilities and to aid in the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms.

Crowdfunding under Social Learning and Network Externalities

In rewards-based crowdfunding, a firm (campaigner) pre-sells a new product and solicits financial contributions from the crowd (consumers) to cover production costs. When a crowdfunding product with uncertain quality is first introduced, consumers may choose to strategically delay their purchase in anticipation of product quality reviews. This paper investigates how the presence of both social learning and network externalities affects the strategic interaction between a crowdfunding firm and forward-looking consumers. Our research yields three main insights. First, we find that in the presence of social learning and strong network externalities, an upward-sloping demand curve may arise. This so-called Veblen effect occurs due to the interaction between social learning and strong network externalities. Second, we show that network externalities have important implications for the optimal crowdfunding reward choice. In particular, under strong network externalities, the optimal reward will induce all consumers to either adopt the product early or adopt the product late; whereas under weak network externalities, the consumers will possibly adopt the products in different periods. Third, we characterize the optimal reward strategy under financial constraints and quantify its impact on the optimal reward choice and the induced purchase pattern from consumers. These insights provide useful guidance on how firms can exploit the benefits of crowdfunding.

Activation of the cannabinoid system in the nucleus accumbens affects effort-based decision making

Effort-based decision making addresses how we make an action choice based on an integration of action and goal values. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) is implicated in allowing an animal to overcome effort constraints to obtain greater benefits, and it has been previously shown that cannabis derivatives may affect such processes. Therefore, in this study, we intend to evaluate the involvement of the cannabinoid system in the entire NAc on effort-based decision making. Rats were trained in a T-maze cost-benefit decision making the task in which they could choose either to climb a barrier to obtain a large reward in one arm or run into the other arm without a barrier to obtaining a small reward. Following training, the animals were bilaterally implanted with guide cannulae in the NAc. On test day, rats received cannabinoid agonist (Win 55,212-2; 2, 10 and 50μM) and/or antagonist (AM251; 45μM), afterward percentage of large reward choice and latency of reward attainment were investigated. Results revealed that the administration of cannabinoid agonist led to decrease of large reward choice percentage such that the animals preferred to receive a small reward with low effort instead of receiving a large reward with high effort. The administration of antagonist solely did not affect effort-based decision making, but did attenuate the Win 55,212-2-induced impairments in effort allocation. In agonist-treated animals, the latency of reward collection increased. Moreover, when the effort was equated on both arms, the animals returned to choosing large reward showing that obtained results were not caused by spatial memory impairment. Our finding suggested that activation of the cannabinoid system in the NAc impaired effort-based decision making and led to rats were less willing to invest the physical effort to gain large reward.

Thinking about others and the future: Neural correlates of perspective taking relate to preferences for delayed rewards

We infer the thoughts and feelings of others by taking their perspectives. Similar processes could be used to understand how we will be affected by future events, by allowing us to take the perspective of our future self. In this paper, we test this idea using a previously presented framework for guiding predictions. The framework proposes that a shared neural mechanism is involved in controlling egocentric bias, both while shifting our perspective away from self and towards others, and while shifting our perspective from immediate to future perspectives. To test this framework, 36 adults performed an intertemporal choice task. They were then scanned using 3T functional magnetic resonance imaging while completing a false-belief “localizer” task, which requires egocentric bias control. A positive correlation was observed between the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) response during the false-belief task, and preferences for delayed rewards in intertemporal choices. A subset of participants performed the intertemporal choice task again in the scanner, which revealed that the response of the same rTPJ cluster, individually localized during the false-belief task, was higher during delayed over immediate reward choices. In addition, functional connectivity between the rTPJ and ventromedial prefrontal cortex was found to differ between immediate and delayed choices. The current results indicate an overlap in processes of egocentric bias control and those that determine preferences in intertemporal choices, offering a social cognitive explanation for why rewards are devalued with delay in temporal discounting.

Involvement of cannabinoid system in the nucleus accumbens on delay-based decision making in the rat

The nucleus accumbens (NAc) plays a fundamental role in decision making and anticipation of reward. In addition, exogenous cannabinoids affect the behavior of humans and animals including disruption of short-term memory and cognitive impairments. Therefore, in this study, cannabinoid agonist and antagonist were administrated into the NAc to determine the effect of cannabinoid activation in the entire NAc on delay-based decision making. Rats were trained on a cost-benefit T-maze decision making task in which the animals were well-trained to choose between a small/immediate reward and a large/delay reward. After training, the animals were implanted with guide cannulae in the NAc. On test day, they received cannabinoid agonist (Win 55,212-2; 10, 50 and 100μM) and/or antagonist (AM251; 45μM) into the NAc. Percentage of high reward choice and latency of reward achievement were evaluated. Results showed that cannabinoid agonist administration caused a decrease in high reward choice such that rats selected small/immediate reward instead of large/delay reward. Moreover, in agonist-treated animals latency of reward achievement increased. Effects of cannabinoid activation on delay-based decision making with equivalent delays demonstrated that if the delay was equated on both arm goals, animals still had a preference for the high/delay reward, showing the results was not caused by an impairment of spatial preference or memory. These finding clarified that cannabinoid system activation in the entire NAc plays a critical role in the regulation of delay-based decision making.

Reversible inactivation of the lateral hypothalamus reversed high reward choices in cost-benefit decision-making in rats

The Lateral hypothalamus (LH) is an important component of the networks underlying the control of feeding and other motivated behaviors. Cost-benefit decision-making is mediated largely by the prefrontal cortex (PFC) which strongly innervates the LH. Therefore, in the current study, we conducted a series of experiments to elucidate the role of the perifornical area of the lateral hypothalamus (PeF-LH) in effort and/or delay-based decision-making. We trained different groups of rats in a delay-based and/or an effort-based form of cost-benefit T-maze decision- making task in which they could either choose to pay the cost to obtain a high reward in one arm or could obtain a low reward in the other arm with no cost. During test days, the rats received local injections of either vehicle or lidocaine4% (0.5 μl/side), in the PeF-LH.In an effort-based decision task, PeF-LH inactivation led to decrease in high reward choice. Similarly, in a delay-based decision task animals’ preference changed to a low but immediately available reward. This was not caused by a spatial memory or motor deficit. PeF-LH inactivation modified decision behavior. The results imply that PeF-LH is important for allowing the animal to pay a cost to acquire greater rewards.

A canonical variate analysis of personal traits and physical activity interests: furthering the sport personology debate

ABSTRACTTwo studies employing canonical variate analysis generated evidence that related personality to both activity interests and involvement. In the first study of 1885 participants, significant canonical correlations allowed the following interpretations of three canonical functions: higher trait scores on competitiveness, thrill-seeking and assertiveness corresponded to stronger interests in martial arts, outdoor activities and competitive sports; higher thrill seeking and spontaneity scores related to greater interests in martial arts and outdoor activities; greater self-reliance, mental focus and control aligned with stronger interests in weight training but reduced interest in class training. A second and smaller study (N = 286) yielded support for the first investigation, and added evidence related to relationships between personality and self-reported participation in different physical activities. In conjunction, these studies argue for continued employment of this methodology in sport personology research with an eye to creating tools for guiding individuals towards rewarding and sustainable physical activity choices.

4.15 Explore-Exploit Decision Making: Differences in Information-Seeking Behavior in Pediatric Psychopathology

Impairments in decision making are often associated with various types of pediatric psychopathology. Such perturbations may impact one’s ability to resolve explore-exploit dilemmas, i.e., choosing to pursue a known reward (exploitation) versus a lesser-known option (exploration). The explore-exploit dilemma has begun to be mapped using both behavioral paradigms and neuroimaging data. However, exploratory decision-making strategies have not yet been studied in a clinical pediatric sample group using the present reward choice task. The present study aims to use an explore-exploit paradigm to examine group differences in information-seeking behavior.

Neural dysfunction during temporal discounting in paediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Both Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) are associated with choice impulsivity, i.e. the tendency to prefer smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards. However, the extent to which this impulsivity is mediated by shared or distinct underlying neural mechanisms is unclear. Twenty-six boys with ADHD, 20 boys with OCD and 20 matched controls (aged 12–18) completed an fMRI version of an individually adjusted temporal discounting (TD) task which requires choosing between a variable amount of money now or £100 in one week, one month or one year. Activations to immediate and delayed reward choices were compared between groups using a three-way ANCOVA. ADHD patients had steeper discounting rates on the task relative to controls. OCD patients did not differ from controls or patients with ADHD. Patients with ADHD and OCD showed predominantly shared activation deficits during TD in fronto-striato-insular-cerebellar regions responsible for self-control and temporal foresight, suggesting that choice impulsivity is mediated by overlapping neural dysfunctions in both disorders. OCD patients alone showed dysfunction relative to controls in right orbitofrontal and rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, extending previous findings of abnormalities in these regions in OCD to the domain of choice impulsiveness.

What reward does a child prefer for behaving well at the dentist?

Background:Paediatric dentists often report using positive reinforcement to encourage their young patients to show co-operative behaviour. For effective reinforcement to take place the reward should be salient to the individual. To date, there is little research into what reward a young patient will choose when attending the dentist.Aim:To identify what reward children between the age of 4–8 years will choose when attending the dentist, and to determine the extent of agreement between children and caregivers in reward choice.Method:Observational study. Fifty-two children from different age groups (4–5 years, 6–7 years and 8 years) attending a primary-care dental clinic were asked to choose between a range of different rewards. The caregiver attending with them was also asked to anticipate the child’s preferred choice.Results:There was no clear favourite reward for children from both genders and different age group. However, no child chose the ‘sticker’ reward that is traditionally given out at the dentist. Overall carers agreed with the child’s choice of toy on 18 occasions (34.6%), but there were significant differences across the age groups with carers of older children showing less agreementConclusion:To ensure that rewards are salient, children should be given a choice of rewards when attending the dental clinic. Parents ability to predict their child’s preferred rewards decreases as the child ages.Clinical relevance:A child’s motivation to co-operate during dental treatment can be increased by offering a range of rewards. Asking children to choose their reward from a limited range will increase the saliency of the reward for the child.

Children’s choice: motivation after successful completion of a mathematics task

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to examine kindergarten children’s motivation choice after successfully completing a mathematical task. Three succeeding measurements took place in two-week intervals. In each measurement a different choice dyad was presented to participating children. After the successful completion of a mathematical activity, participants were asked to make one choice from among three dyads: social reward-tangible reward, social reward-harder task and tangible reward-harder task. Results revealed that children preferred the tangible reward (candy) over other choices and the social reward over the harder task. Logistic regression analyses revealed that children’s choice of a tangible reward cannot be predicted by their mothers’ and fathers’ education and income levels, their mathematical level or their teachers’ reward practices. Educators should be aware of practices that would harm the learner’s inner process in order to avoid those applications in their classroom.

Neural mechanisms of individual differences in temporal discounting of monetary and primary rewards in adolescents

Adolescents are generally characterized as impulsive. However, impulsivity is a multi-dimensional construct that involves multiple component processes. Which of these components contribute to adolescent impulsivity is currently unclear. This study focused on the neural mechanisms underlying individual differences in distinct components of temporal discounting (TD), i.e., the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards. Participants were 58 adolescents (12–16 years-old) who performed an fMRI TD task with both monetary and snack rewards. Using mixed-effects modeling, we determined participants’ average impatience, and further decomposed TD choices into: 1) amount sensitivity (unique contribution of the magnitude of the immediate reward); and 2) delay sensitivity (unique contribution of delay duration). Adolescents’ average impatience was positively correlated with frontoparietal and ventral striatal activity during delayed reward choices, and with ventromedial prefrontal cortex activity during immediate reward choices. Adolescents’ amount sensitivity was positively associated with ventral striatal and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex activity during immediate reward choices. Delay sensitivity was positively correlated with inferior parietal cortex activity during delayed reward choices. As expected, snacks were discounted more steeply than money, and TD of both reward types was associated with overlapping activation in the inferior parietal cortex. Exploring whether testosterone or estradiol were associated with TD and its neural correlates revealed no significant associations. These findings indicate that distinct components contribute uniquely to TD choice and that individual differences in amount sensitivity are uniquely associated with activation of reward valuation areas, while individual differences in delay sensitivity are uniquely associated with activation of cognitive control areas.

Effects of nucleus accumbens amphetamine administration on performance in a delay discounting task

Chronic administration of cocaine can cause pronounced and enduring cognitive alterations such as increases in impulsive choice. Chronic cocaine can also result in enhanced dopamine (DA) release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in response to reward-related cues. It is possible that this enhanced DA release in the NAc is a mechanism by which cocaine increases impulsive choice. To date, however, the specific role of DA in the NAc in impulsive choice is unclear. To begin to address this, rats received acute microinjections of the indirect DA agonist amphetamine directly into the NAc prior to testing in a delay discounting task in which rats chose between a small, immediate and a large, delayed food reward. When delays to the large reward increased within test sessions, amphetamine increased choice of the large reward. When delays decreased within test sessions, however, amphetamine decreased choice of the large reward. These findings suggest that, rather than specifically mediating impulsive choice, DA neurotransmission in the NAc is necessary for flexible adaptation of choice strategies in the presence of shifting reward contingencies. These results further indicate that enhancements in NAc DA release likely do not account for lasting increases in impulsive choice caused by chronic cocaine.

Early commitment facilitates optimal choice by pigeons.

Prior commitment has been found to facilitate choice of a larger later reward (e.g., healthy living) and avoid the impulsive choice of the smaller immediate reward (e.g., smoking, drug taking). In this research with pigeons, we investigated the ephemeral choice task in which pigeons are given a choice between two alternatives, A and B, with similar reinforcement provided for each; however, if they choose A, they can also choose B, whereas if they choose B, A is removed. Thus, choosing A gives them two rewards, whereas choosing B gives them only one. Paradoxically, pigeons actually show a preference for B, the suboptimal alternative. We tested the hypothesis that pigeons made suboptimal choices because they were impulsive. To reduce impulsivity, we required the pigeons to make their initial choice 20 s before receiving the first reward. We found that requiring the pigeons to make a prior commitment encouraged them to choose optimally. The control group, for which the reward was provided immediately following initial choice, continued to choose suboptimally. The results confirm that requiring animals to make a prior commitment can facilitate the development of optimal choice. Furthermore, they may help explain why, without prior commitment, impulsive species, such as primates and pigeons have difficulty with this task, whereas presumably less impulsive species, such as wrasse fish and under some conditions parrots, are able to choose optimally even without prior commitment.

Probing the Role of Medication, DBS Electrode Position, and Antidromic Activation on Impulsivity Using a Computational Model of Basal Ganglia.

Everyday, we encounter situations where available choices are nearly equally rewarding (high conflict) calling for some tough decision making. Experimental recordings showed that the activity of Sub Thalamic Nucleus (STN) increases during such situations providing the extra time needed to make the right decision, teasing apart the most rewarding choice from the runner up closely trailing behind. This prolonged deliberation necessary for decision making under high conflict was absent in Parkinson's disease (PD) patients who underwent Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) surgery of STN. In an attempt to understand the underlying cause of such adverse response, we built a 2D spiking network model (50 × 50 lattice) of Basal ganglia incorporating the key nuclei. Using the model we studied the Probabilistic learning task (PLT) in untreated, treated (L-Dopa and Dopamine Agonist) and STN-DBS PD conditions. Based on the experimental observation that dopaminergic activity is analogous to temporal difference (TD) and induces cortico-striatal plasticity, we introduced learning in the cortico-striatal weights. The results show that healthy and untreated conditions of PD model were able to more or less equally select (avoid) the rewarding (punitive) choice, a behavior that was absent in treated PD condition. The time taken to select a choice in high conflict trials was high in normal condition, which is in agreement with experimental results. The treated PD (Dopamine Agonist) patients made impulsive decisions (small reaction time) which in turn led to poor performance. The underlying cause of the observed impulsivity in DBS patients was studied in the model by (1) varying the electrode position within STN, (2) causing antidromic activation of GPe neurons. The effect of electrode position on reaction time was analyzed by studying the activity of STN neurons where, a decrease in STN neural activity was observed for certain electrode positions. We also observed that a higher antidromic activation of GPe neurons does not impact the learning ability but decreases reaction time as reported in DBS patients. These results suggest a probable role of electrode and antidromic activation in modulating the STN activity and eventually affecting the patient's performance on PLT.

Pubertal Maturation Compression and Behavioral Impulsivity among Boys at Increased Risk for Substance Use.

While early onset of puberty among girls has been related to substance use involvement and other adverse outcomes, less research has examined pubertal development and outcomes in boys. Further, research on puberty has not been conducted in the context of other risk factors for substance use involvement such as impulsivity. To address these gaps, this study characterized boys' pubertal development from preadolescence to mid-adolescence and related it to substance use risk and behavioral impulsivity. A sample of 153 boys completed the Pubertal Development Scale to assess perception of their pubertal development relative to same age peers from ages 10 to 16 years, at 6-month intervals. Group-based trajectory modeling identified three distinct patterns of pubertal development: boys with more slowly developing boys with either earlier (n = 54) or later (n = 43) pubertal timing, and boys with faster tempo of pubertal development (n = 56). The groups were compared on demographic and substance use risk characteristics, as well as behavioral measures of impulsivity. Boys who had the accelerated progression through puberty had the highest proportion of family histories of substance use disorder and perform more impulsively on reward choice measures. Outcomes are consistent within the Maturation Compression Hypothesis and social neuroscience models of adolescent developmental risk.

103. Reward Sensitivity and “unbalance” cortical effect as a biomarker of new addictions. A multi-method study

The present study explored the effect of cortical lateralisation activity during the decisional process in a gambling context. It is assumed that increasing of the left DLPFC activity and personality trait make subjects’ strategies more disadvantageous and “gambling” during an online game. Twenty-one subjects were tested using the IGT and GO/noGo task while the EEG was registered and alpha-band modulation was considered. Secondly, the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)/Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) scale was used to test the effect of reward sensitivity. Moreover, metacognitive questionnaire was applied. It was found that high-BAS subjects increased their tendency to opt in favour of the immediate reward rather than the long-term option, while a significant increasing of the left-hemisphere activation was found in response to immediate reward choices compared to low-BAS subjects. Finally, they tended to have difficulties to inhibit the automatic response, and they showed dysfunction of metacognitive abilities. A reward bias effect was supposed to explain both the bad strategy and the unbalanced hemispheric activation for high-BAS subjects. These findings could have important repercussions in the social context for the prevention of dysfunctional behaviours that affect compulsive disorders like new forms of addiction.

ID 41 – High Reward Sensitivity as a biomarker of online gambling. A multi-method study on gambling behaviour

Objective The present research explored the main risky factors that can influence subjects’ choices during the decisional process in an online game context. We supposed that reward bias, metacognitive deficit and personality trait make subjects’ strategies more disadvantageous and “gambling”. Methods Twenty-one subjects were tested using the IGT and GO/noGo task while the EEG was registered and alpha-band modulation were considered. Secondly, the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)/Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) scale was use for testing the effect of reward sensitivity and metacognitive questionary was applied. Results It was found that high-BAS subjects increased their tendency to opt in favour of the immediate reward rather than the long-term option, they tend to have difficulties to inhibit the automatic response, and they show a dysfunctional metacognition abilities. Finally, high-BAS subjects showed an increased left-hemisphere activation in response to immediate reward choices if compared to low-BAS subjects. Conclusions A reward bias effect was supposed to explain both the bad strategy and the unbalanced hemispheric activation for high-BAS and more risk-taking subjects. Key message These findings could have important repercussions in the social context for the prevention of dysfunctional behaviours that affect compulsive disorders like addiction.