Product Returns Research Articles

Impact of mulching and nutrient management under pulses based cropping systems on vertisols of southern transitional zone of Karnataka

A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of mulching and nutrient management under different pulse based cropping system during 2018-19 at Indian Institute Pulses Research, Regional Research Station, Dharwad, Karnataka, India. The field experiment was conducted in deep black soil using split-split plot design with three replications. The treatments comprised of four cropping systems i.e., maize-chickpea, soybean-chickpea, groundnut-chickpea and mungbean-sorghum and two levels of fertilisation (farmers practise and recommended rate of fertilisers) with mulching and without mulching. The pooled yield of different crops under cropping system was significantly higher with mulching and recommended rate of fertilizer application. Among the different cropping systems, maize-chickpea was recorded significantly higher chickpea equivalent yield (3867 kg/ha) compared to other cropping system. Application of recommended rate of fertilizers resulted in higher chickpea equivalent yield of 2794 kg/ha over farmers’ practice. Among the mulching practices, mulching with crop residues recorded significantly higher chickpea equivalent yield of 4257 kg/ha over no mulching (3754 kg/ha). Higher yields of component crops are reported in recommended rate of fertilisers with mulching. Hence, for realising higher system productivity and net returns, it is better to grow maize during kharif season followed by chickpea in rabi season with recommended rate of fertilisers and crop residue mulching for in-situ moisture conservation.

Pengaruh Price Discount dan Atribut Produk terhadap Minat Beli Ulang Dimediasi oleh Kepuasan Pelanggan pada E-Commerce Lazada: Studi Mahasiswi di Universitas Semarang

In this research the author uses a quantitative research approach. What is meant by quantitative research will emphasize the quality of the data or the depth of the data obtained. The data that will be used in this research data is primary data. The population of this research is all customers who shop at Lazada Semarang e-commerce. Lazada provides a guaranteed product return application service to help consumers if there are problems, the products offered meet consumer needs and desires. Lazada provides a guaranteed product return application service, helps consumers if there are problems, the products offered meet consumer needs and desires, and the admin responds quickly. and features displayed such as product information. So that with the many services provided, consumers will have their own satisfaction.

Problemática del acceso a los medicamentos: disponibilidad y la producción local en América latina

Inequality in access to medicines is perceived as a symptom of the weaknesses of the health system and implies a failure on the part of governments to fulfill their obligations to their citizens in terms of their right to health protection. Integrating the perspective of health as an inherent right of the population and, at the same time, the perspective of health as a strategic space for the development of the productive and technological base, value creation, generation of investment, income, employment, knowledge and innovation, are key to improving access. The objective of this paper is to present the problem of access to medicines from the perspective of their availability and to describe the situation of the Latin American market. The Latin American scenario is complex: countries with different economic realities, failed integration projects, public health spending below 6%, low investment in research and development, preference for imports, non-convergent legislation and tendencies towards nationalism in high-income countries for the return of production to the country of origin. Despite the limitations described above, there are productive capacities in the region that need to be strengthened. Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Colombia and Chile are the countries called upon to lead regional production through diversification. At this time, the solution is for the region to put regional projects before individual interests in order to achieve sanitary self-sufficiency. Keywords: Access; production; availability; integration; legislation; regulatory agency; Latin America

Influence of Structural Discontinuity on Slope Stability using Numerical Modelling and Sirovision

The rock mass consists of heterogeneous and anisotropic materials, with smaller and larger blocks of rock, and the presence of structural discontinuities is a significant concern. Characterising the rock mass is crucial for the success of engineering excavations in such areas. A detailed study of joints, their orientation, and discontinuities in the exposed rock mass is crucial as they greatly influence stability and fragmentation. Existing rock mass classifications like Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Q-classification require various geological parameters and physico-mechanical properties of the rock. However, determining these parameters conventionally can be time-consuming, requiring careful on-site measurements. The number of opencast coal mines is increasing compared to underground mines due to shorter gestation periods, higher productivity, and quicker returns. However, opencast mining raises environmental concerns such as air and water pollution, solid waste management, land degradation, and socio-economic issues. Additionally, many opencast coal mines, regardless of size, are reaching greater depths, making analysing bench slopes and ultimate pit slope design crucial. Slope failure in these mines leads to production loss, additional costs for recovery and handling of failed material, pit dewatering, sometimes mine abandonment or premature closure, and loss of life. A study was conducted at Prakash Khani Opencast Mine – IV, Manuguru area, M/s The Singereni Company Collieries Limited (SCCL), to investigate the influence of structural discontinuities on slope stability. SIROVISION software was used to assess rock mass characterisation, while PLAXIS-2D software was employed to analyse the influence of structural discontinuities on slope stability. A comparative conclusion was drawn based on the results obtained from SIROVISION and PLAXIS-2D analyses. The study revealed that the RMR of the mine ranged from very poor to fair due to numerous discontinuities. It was also found that discontinuities in the slope decrease the Factor of Safety (FOS), indicating an impact on slope stability.

Growth Dynamic, Productivity, Evapotranspiration, and Water-Economic Indices of Forage Cactus under Different Irrigation Depths

Supplementary irrigation can be strategic for forage cactus, aiming to guarantee higher levels of productivity and economic return. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the growth dynamics, productivity, evapotranspiration, and water economy indices of three forage cactus clones under different water regimes. The study was carried out in the Brazilian semi-arid region during two cycles between 2020 and 2022. Clones of forage cactus Orelha de Elefante Mexicana—OEM (Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.) were evaluated; IPA Sertânia—IPA and Miúda—MIU (both species Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck) were subjected to four water regimes: rainfed and three irrigation depths (4, 8 and 12 mm). Growth dynamics and evapotranspiration were evaluated throughout the cycles, and productivity and water economy indices were based on data from the harvest time. The OEM clone showed higher dry matter productivity (21.8 Mg ha−1). The MIU clone, when intended for seed sales, presented a higher economic return (USD 20,823.33). The use of irrigation brought forward the cutting time and reduced water saving rates. With this, it can be concluded that the increase in water availability in cactus increases water consumption and reduces economic-water indices but brings important productive returns.

Evaluation of Yield Advantages, Competitiveness and Economic Benefits of Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) Based Intercropping Systems Under Different Date of Sowing

The experiment conducted at the Department of Agronomy farm, VNMKV., Parbhani (MH), during the kharif seasons of 2016-2017 and 2017-2018, integrates key agro-environmental factors. The utilization of deep black (vertisol) soil with good drainage replicates prevalent soil conditions in the region, ensuring the relevance and applicability of the findings to tropical environments of Latin America [20,21]. The implementation of a split plot design with two replications, considering four sowing dates and seven cropping systems, enhances the experimental robustness, facilitating a comprehensive evaluation of the interactions between timing and cropping systems [6,22].The study's findings highlight the significance of sowing dates in maximizing pigeonpea equivalent yield and net monetary returns, with sowing within a week period after the regular commencement of the monsoon (D1) demonstrating superior performance. Furthermore, the pigeonpea + soybean intercropping system emerges as the most favorable [50], indicating its potential for enhancing agricultural productivity and economic returns in the region [17,19]. The study's insights into the competitiveness and economic benefits of different intercropping systems provide valuable guidance for agronomic management practices in tropical environments [50]. By identifying the superior performance of certain cropping systems, such as pigeonpea + soybean, and the influence of sowing dates on yield outcomes [51,45], the study informs farmers and agricultural practitioners on optimal strategies for maximizing productivity and profitability in pigeonpea cultivation [29,30].
 The observed behavior of component crops within intercropping systems underscores the complexity of crop interactions and highlights the need for tailored management approaches. The dominance of the niger crop in intercropping systems over the pigeonpea base crop emphasizes the importance of understanding crop dynamics for optimizing yield outcomes [5,18]. Additionally, the study's evaluation of different sowing dates contributes to enhancing climate resilience [14] in agricultural systems by identifying optimal timing strategies for mitigating climate variability effects on crop performance [7,37,13].

Reduced fertigation input sustains yield and physiological performance for improved economic returns and cleaner production of greenhouse eggplant

Greenhouse horticulture, a sustainable alternative to conventional horticulture, maximises resource use and return for vegetable production. This study evaluated the impact of varying nutrient solution electrical conductivity (EC) levels (EC 1.8, 2.8, and 3.8) on eggplant cultivars (Solanum melongena L. cv. Lydia, and Tracey) performance and economic viability in high-tech glasshouses. We found that morphological traits such as plant height and leaf number were consistent across EC levels, while fruit weight, length, and width are significantly higher at the lowest EC (1.8). Photosynthetic rates increased significantly with rising EC levels, while other gas exchange parameters such as stomatal conductance, intrinsic water use efficiency, and vapour pressure deficit were similar for all EC levels tested. Yield analysis revealed a negative correlation between eggplant yield and increasing EC levels, with optimal yields in both eggplant varieties (0.81 and 1.14 kg m−2 week−1 in Lydia and Tracey, respectively) achieved at the lowest EC. Economic analysis highlighted that lower EC levels lead to lower operational costs and higher net profit values (NPV). Sensitivity analysis underscored the importance of wholesale price and crop yield in determining NPV, with lower EC levels offering a shorter payback period of approximately 6 years in Australia and China and higher economic returns. The study highlights the significance of optimizing EC levels for achieving more resource-sustainable and profitable eggplant production in greenhouses.

Cost Reduction Economical Drip Layout for Enhancing Productivity, Profitability and Soil Fertility in Maize and Cotton under Semi-arid Condition

Background: Single economical cost reducing drip lay out for major annual crops with paired row geometry is an alternate solution to overcome constraints faced by the farmers and increase the income. Further to achieve high crop production and sustainable agricultural development, it is necessary to compare the effects of different dripline spacings and fertilization rates on maize and seed cotton yield. Methods: A field experiment was carried out at Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, Tiruchirappalli to evaluate the suitability of single economical drip layout and to optimize the fertilizer level in modified geometries as well as to assess the impact of geometries in water and productivity of maize and cotton. Result: The results revealed that, the economics was in favor with 1.20 m lateral spacing and application of 100% recommended N and K through drip fertigation and P as soil application (L2F2) having higher gross return, net return and BCR in maize and cotton. 1.2 m spacing between two laterals with 4Iph emitter at 0.6 m interval with recommended dose of 100% N and K trough fertigation and P as soil application is recommended to achieve higher productivity and monetary return form cotton and maize.

Enhancing productivity, economics and energy efficiency through precision nitrogen and water management in conservation agriculture-based maize (Zea mays) in the Indo-Gangetic Plains

Present study focuses on improving maize productivity, economics, and energy efficiency in the Indo-Gangetic Plains through the integration of CA, precision nitrogen and water management. Maize grain yield significantly differed among treatments, with CA outperforming CT by 13.3%, recording the highest yield with optimal N application (N3) and irrigation at 25% DASM. The CA incurred 23.7% lower cultivation costs (₹30,421/ha) compared to CT. Gross returns and net returns were higher under CA (₹1,16,007/ha and ₹85,586/ha) with a net benefit ratio of 2.78, showcasing its economic viability. Energy efficiency was a crucial aspect considered, with CA proving to be 33.1% more energy-efficient than CT. In different irrigation regimes, CA with W2 treatment exhibited superior energy parameters. The study also highlighted the significance of optimal N scheduling (N3) in achieving higher economic returns (₹97,927/ha) compared to conventional N splits (N1) and its integration. The most effective integration involved combining CA with precision N management (75% basal, GreenSeekerTM-guided top dressing) and irrigation at 25% DASM, resulting in higher grain yield (7.21 t/ ha), gross returns (₹132,497/ha), and impressive energy output (230,831 MJ/ha). In conclusion, CA, especially when combined with optimal irrigation and nitrogen management, not only enhances maize yield and economic returns but also proves to be more energy-efficient, promoting sustainable and resource-efficient agricultural practices. The study recommends this integrated approach for enhancing maize productivity, energy efficiency and economic returns.

Effect of Deficit Irrigation and Mulch on Field and Water Productivity of Tomato Under Drip Irrigation at Ambo Agricultural Research Center, West Shewa, Ethiopia

Ethiopia produces far fewer tomatoes than the world average due to poor management techniques. It was found that the soil moisture and agroclimatic conditions affected how tomatoes reacted to water management during irrigation. In order to assess the impacts of irrigation level and mulch types on the yield, yield components, water productivity, and economic return of drip irrigated tomato production, a field experiment was carried out at the Ambo Agricultural Research Center Farm Site in 2021–2023. The experiment was a two-factor factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design. The two factors were the four irrigation levels (55%ETc, 85%Etc, 70%ETc and 100%ETc) and three mulch types (no mulch, wheat straw mulch, and white plastic mulch). The two-year data on fruit yield, yield components, and water productivity were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS 9.4 software with a significance level (p≤ 0.05). least significant difference test was applied for statistically significant parameters to compare means among the treatments. The best soil moisture depletion levels, as determined by statistical analysis, are 100% ETc, 85% ETc, and 70% ETc, with marketable fruit yields of 56,405 kg/ha, 45,331 kg/ha, and 41,769 kg/ha, respectively. As for mulch types, the best practices are wheat straw mulch and white plastic mulch, with marketable fruit yields of 45,721 kg/ha and 44,514 kg/ha, respectively, for the study area. However, the results of the partial budget analysis results showed that, with net incomes for onion production in the research region of 1,350,930 ETB/ha and 1,367,071 ETB/ha, respectively, 85% ETc and wheat straw mulch are the economically optimal methods.

Cover crops and irrigation impacts on corn production and economic returns

Increases in irrigated crop acreage and frequent droughts during the growing season have caused continual groundwater decline of the Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Aquifer in the Mississippi Delta region. A field experiment was conducted from 2019 to 2021 to determine if combinations of irrigation scheduling thresholds and cover crops (CCs) could improve corn (Zea mays L.) production, water productivity (WP), irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), and net returns. The irrigation thresholds used for irrigation scheduling were a wet threshold (−40 kPa), a dry threshold (−90 kPa), and no irrigation. The CC treatments were cereal rye (Secale cereale L.), hairy vetch (Vicia villosa R.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-radish (Raphanus sativus L.)-turnip (Brassica rapa L.) mix, and no cover crop. In 2020, CCs reduced corn yield by 9–26% compared to no cover crop. In 2021, wet irrigation threshold treatments had 8% and 9% higher corn yield than no irrigation and dry irrigation threshold treatments, respectively. No irrigation treatments showed higher WP than dry and wet irrigation thresholds, while hairy vetch had higher in WP among CC treatments in year two of this study. Hairy vetch under the dry irrigation threshold had higher IWUE than all other treatments. The no-CC treatments generated $167, $340, and $58 ha−1 more under the wet, dry, and no irrigation treatments, respectively, when averaged over both years. Water conservation was affected by CC selection and irrigation management.

Minimum work associated with separating nitrogen from air: An exergy analysis

Background Nitrogen is essential for a variety of industries, including heat treatment, laser cutting, fire protection, and food packaging. Many companies in these industries obtain nitrogen via on-premises air separation processes. The three main processes for separating nitrogen from ambient air are cryogenic distillation, membrane separation, and pressure-swing adsorption (PSA). Improvements to these processes will likely focus on increasing efficiency, resulting in reduced environmental impact owing to less electrical power demand and opportunities for economic incentives. Regardless of the process utilized, a minimum theoretical amount of work input is required to obtain nitrogen gas at different pressures and concentrations compared to ambient conditions. Methods An equation was derived to evaluate the total exergy (including thermo-mechanical and chemical exergy) of product and exhaust mixtures resulting from air separation, indicating the minimum theoretical work input as a function of the product pressure, purity, and process recovery rate. This analysis considered an air separation system as a black box, with the input, output, and exhaust assumed to be ideal gas mixtures of nitrogen and oxygen at 15°C. The analysis applies to cryogenic distillation if the product and exhaust mixtures return to the gas phase. Results In general, the minimum required work input increases with product purity and recovery rate. Plots of minimum theoretical work versus product purity and recovery rate were made for two product pressures (atmospheric and 800 kPa) to show the behavior of the derived equation. Conclusions The analysis allows for direct efficiency (based on the second law of thermodynamics) comparisons between existing processes and future technological innovations in the field of air separation. Actual air separation systems have low efficiencies compared to ideal systems; actual PSA systems were estimated to have second law efficiencies of 5.5–11.2%. Therefore, there is great potential for improvements to current air separation systems.

Managing physical inventory and return policies for omnichannel retailing

As the retail industry increasingly adopts an omnichannel strategy amidst the growth of e-commerce, this study explores the interplay between inventory and return policies in such a setting. Specifically, we focus on “return losses,” defined as the losses incurred by retailers due to customer product returns. We target how these return losses impact retailers’ profits and physical inventories. While previous research has mainly concentrated on cross-channel returns, little attention has been paid to how omnichannel return policies affect store inventory and profit. We posit that profit-maximizing retailers allow consumers to select their purchase channels based on utility but require returns to follow specific policies. In this paper, we model four return policies based on the channel of return: original purchasing channel return, offline return, online return, and cross-channel return. We use a newsvendor model to construct an optimal profit function that accounts for the additional profit from offline return, uncertainty demand, and inventory cost. Our analysis identifies the conditions under which certain return policies are beneficial or detrimental to omnichannel retailers. We discover that the retailer's product pricing, return losses, and consumer return hassle costs are the main factors influencing the best return policy and inventory policy decisions. Moreover, whether to increase or decrease store inventory and the relationship between physical inventory and return loss depend on the return policy, price, and return hassle cost. Numerical simulations support our findings, which offer practical guidance for omnichannel retailers aiming to optimize their inventory and return policies.

Cost and returns analysis of upland and lowland rice production among farmers in North Central Nigeria

Sustainability of the rice production and farmers’ income in Nigeria raises a serious concern due to the rising costs of production inputs and other factors beyond farmers’ control. As a result, the study compared the cost and returns of rice production in North central, Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 387 rice farmers in the study area. Descriptive statistics, gross margin analysis and seeming unrelated regression were used to analyze the dataset collected. The findings revealed that most of the rice farmers were male, averagely young and have at least 9 family members in their respectively households. Results from Kwara State showed that total cost is higher among the upland rice farmers compared to their lowland counterparts, but reverse was the case in term of net profit, as this favoured the lowland rice farmers. For Niger State and pooled data, the lowland rice farmers had higher net profit than the upland rice farmers. Seemingly unrelated regression estimates indicated that costs associated with fertilizer, herbicide, seed, pesticide and labour used were significant and influencing factors affecting the revenue of rice farmers in the study area. While inaccessibility to cheap farm inputs was the major constraint affecting the rice farmers, other challenges include lack of storage, inadequate rainfall and inadequate credit facilities. The study recommended seamless access to improved rice varieties by the farmers as this can scale up adoption of improved technologies, boost production and ultimately the net revenue of rice farmers. Farmers are also advised to join and/or form a registered occupational groups through which credit facilities can easily be accessed, to expand the farming operations because of the positive and complementary role of social group and access to credit.

Abandoning conversion from even-aged to uneven-aged forest stands – the effects on production and economic returns

ABSTRACT There is growing interest in continuous cover forestry in Sweden. The historical domination of even-aged forest management means there is a need to focus on methods for transforming even-aged to uneven-aged stands. Practical conversion management today is highly adaptive, and the possibility of failures, such as persistent lack of tree recruitment, must be allowed for. We used simulations to evaluate various scenarios in which conversion management is introduced at different development stages in even-aged stands and then abandoned in favour of clear-felling. A shift towards an inverse J-shaped diameter distribution at the end of the simulations was most evident in northern Sweden and with an early introduction of conversion forestry. The largest losses were incurred in a scenario where the conversion management started with removing larger trees at pre-commercial thinning: it reduced the volume of production by up to 25% and, if clear-felled, resulted in a lower land expectation value than conventional management. Earlier decision to abandon conversion management reduced the losses, but the effect of timing was minor. In summary, the results indicate that conversion management could be started and abandoned without any major economic loss during the timeframe of a normal rotation.

When Persuasion Is Too Persuasive: An Empirical Analysis of Product Returns in Livestream e-Commerce

Livestream e-commerce features live social interactions that enable real-time, face-to-text communications among a streamer and many customers. We posit such live social interactions generate persuasion effect that eventually leads to higher product returns. Using data from a leading livestream e-commerce firm, we compare the product returns between live sessions with rerun sessions where the only difference is the presence of live social interactions in live sessions but not in rerun sessions, and develop econometric models to estimate the effect of live social interaction intensity on product returns. We find that product returns are higher for the live sessions than for the rerun sessions, and that the magnitude of the effect increases with live social interaction intensity, confirming the adverse persuasion effect in livestream e-commerce. We also find that the persuasion effect of live social interactions on product returns is stronger when the streamer has more experience in hosting livestream sessions and the product price is lower. We estimate that one standard deviation increase in live social interaction intensity can increase the product return rates by as much as 11.68 percentage points in terms of absolute product return rates, which is more than 30% of the average product return rates. Robustness checks, theoretical and managerial implications are also discussed.

Foliar application of phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine in fragrant rice production: Aroma, yield, grain quality, and economic return

Phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine are amino acids that are important to the growth and development of crops. However, the application of these amino acids in fragrant rice (Oryza sativa L.) production has not been reported. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of exogenous amino acids on aroma, yield, grain quality, and economic return of fragrant rice. At the heading stage, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine at 0.50, 1.00, and 2.00 g L−1 were foliar applied to fragrant rice plants respectively and the treatment sprayed with distilled water was taken as control. The results showed that the foliar application of these amino acids significantly increased grain yield and seed-setting rate of fragrant rice. The total return and net income of fragrant rice production increased due to amino acids and the highest or equally highest net income and benefit-cost ratio was recorded in phenylalanine treatments with 0.50 and 1.00 g L−1 and tryptophan with 1.00 g L−1. However, amino acids applied at 2.00 g L−1 significantly decreased the benefit-cost ratio. Foliar application of phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine significantly enhanced superoxide dismutase activity. Phenylalanine treatments also increased the chlorophyll content. Compared with control, phenylalanine and tryptophan treatments significantly increased the grain content of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP) which is the key volatile component of fragrant rice aroma. The increased 2-AP content was explained by enhanced activity of proline dehydrogenase which plays an important part in catalyzing the conversion from proline to 2-AP. In conclusion, foliar application of phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine improved yield formation and economic return of fragrant rice. Foliar application of phenylalanine and tryptophan also enhanced 2-AP biosynthesis in fragrant rice.

MANAGING FINANCING RISK OF ISLAMIC BANKING PRODUCTS IN INDONESIA: A VALUE AT RISK APPROACH

This study aims to assess the potential risk and anticipated returns of equity and debt-based financing products in Islamic banking in Indonesia, represented by the three most prevalent contracts: musharakah, mudharabah, and murabahah. Data was collected from banks' monthly financial reports published on the Indonesia Financial Service Authority (OJK) website from 2014 to 2020, resulting in 82 observations. Data analysis was conducted using the Value at Risk (VaR) method with the variance-covariance approach. Among many methods, VaR is one of the most popular techniques that yields the most comprehensive results in measuring risk and return. The findings reveal that, in general, all equity and debt-based financing yielded stable risk and returns. However, equity-based financing produced higher returns, but also generated higher risks due to its uncertain nature. The results also demonstrate that risk management in Islamic banks improved gradually during the observation period, as indicated by the average score of portfolio combinations. These findings suggest that Islamic banks should balance their product offerings between equity-based financing and debt-based financing while simultaneously strengthening risk management, especially for murabahah products in equity-based financing.

Effect of provenances on growth and stem form of 16-year Juniperus procera plantation in Injibara, Northwestern Ethiopia

Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. is an evergreen highland tree species reaching 30–40 m high and restricted to some mountainous areas. This tree is a species of great ecological and economic significance in supporting biodiversity, preventing soil erosion, and providing valuable resources. The study aimed at comparing the provenances effect on growth and yield performance of a 16-years-old J. procera plantation. This long-term experiment included eleven provenances from different regions of Ethiopia. It was laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. The plot size was 100 m2 with 2.5 m by 2.5 m spacing. Growth parameters such as height and diameter over a 1-m interval of standing trees were measured for sample trees. The results showed that the overall mean of basal area for 11 provenances was ranging from 4.4 ± 0.29 to 5.2 ± 0.33 m2 ha⁻1. The biggest (11.3 ± 0.14 m) and smallest (9.8 ± 0.16 m) mean height was obtained in the provenances of Kolobo and Dikisis, respectively. The mean volume of the stem ranges from 12.3 ± 0.93 to 17.9 ± 1.1 m3 ha⁻1. The highest and lowest form factor was obtained in the provenances of Gaynt (0.43 ± 0.02) and Hirna (0.32 ± 0.02), respectively. The generic form factor is 0.4 ± 0.01. Provenance Kolobo had the best growth rate in all growth stages with 1.4 m height greater than the poorest provenance Dikisis and 23% greater than the overall average volume (14.5 m3 ha⁻1) at age of 16 years. The variations in growth and yield performance among the provenances could be attributed to genetic differences and adaptation to the local environment. Provenances originating from similar altitude such as Kolobo's provenances showed better growth and yield performance, possibly due to their adaptation to the cooler and wetter conditions prevailing in the study area. Choosing provenances that are well-adapted to the local site conditions can lead to improved productivity and economic returns.

Comparative Economics of Main Season and Spring Rice Production in Kanchanpur District, Nepal

Rice is the major staple food crop in Nepal which has been growing in two different seasons mainly June/July – October/November as main season rice (MSR) whereas during February/March – June/July as spring rice (SR). A comparative economic analysis of MSR and SR production in Kanchanpur district Nepal was conducted during March to July 2023. A total of 120 rice-growing farmers including 60 MSR and 60 SR growers were randomly selected from the available grower list to collect primary information by using pre-tested interview schedules. Descriptive statistics, independent sample t-tests, and the Cobb-Douglas production function were employed for the data analysis. The study finding revealed that the average landholding of MSR growers was 0.65 ha/hh, whereas the same for SR growers, was 0.55 ha/hh. The average area for MSR and SR were at 0.53 ha and 0.29 ha, respectively. The average productivity of the SR (3.69 t/ha) in the study area was found to be significantly higher than the MSR (4.61 t/ha). Despite the higher cost of production for SR (Rs. 80309.95/ha) than MSR (Rs. 75048.45/ha), the Benefit-Cost ratio for SR was found to be higher (1.61) than that of MSR (1.38). The analysis of coefficients indicated a decreasing for main season rice and increasing return to scale for spring rice, with sums of coefficients measuring 0.74 and 1.24 respectively. This implies that a 100% increase in expenditure on the variables outlined in the model for MSR and SR led to a 74% and 95% increase in the gross return of rice production. These results underscore the potential advantages of promoting improved seed varieties and adopting commercial farming practices in the spring rice cultivation area. The findings indicated the need to replace manual labor with machinery to reduce costs and increase rice cultivation profits.