Resistance Spot Welding Of Steel Research Articles

Challenges and advances in resistance spot welding of ultra-high strength hot-stamped steels: Coating effect, softening phenomena, and mechanical performance

Challenges and advances in resistance spot welding of ultra-high strength hot-stamped steels: Coating effect, softening phenomena, and mechanical performance

Understanding interfacial failure mechanisms of advanced high strength automotive steels resistance spot welds under opening-mode loading

This paper addresses interfacial failure (IF) of automotive steel resistance spot welds under opening mode loading (i.e., Mode I), simulated through the cross-tension test. Two modeling approaches were developed to predict cross-tension strength (CTS) during IF: one based on structural stress and the other on fracture mechanics. The structural stress model correlates CTS with the hardness of the fusion zone, while the fracture mechanics model links CTS to the fusion zone’s toughness. Our evaluation of these models across various automotive steels reveals that the hardness-based model is suitable for steels with fusion zone hardness below 350 HV, where IF typically results in ductile fracture. In contrast, for higher-grade steels with fusion zone hardness exceeding 400 HV, the toughness-based model is more appropriate, as IF occurs through brittle crack propagation. The transition in the interfacial failure mechanism of spot welds under Mode I loading—from ductile tensile failure to brittle crack propagation—is governed by the ratio of toughness and hardness of the fusion zone. These insights not only refine the prediction of CTS but also inform the design of effective post-weld heat treatments aimed at enhancing CTS without sacrificing strength under shear loading mode particularly through martensite refining strategy.

A novel dissimilar resistance spot welding of Ti6Al4V alloy and 316L stainless steel via copper as interlayer by using optimal electrodes

A novel dissimilar resistance spot welding of Ti6Al4V alloy and 316L stainless steel was performed via copper as interlayer by using optimal electrodes. A significant improvement in nugget morphology being of less defects was achieved with increasing the copper interlayer thickness from 50 μm to 400 μm. Thinner interfacial reaction layers at both the nugget/titanium interface and the nugget/stainless steel interface and finer equiaxed dendritic grained structure at the inner nugget were formed with copper interlayer thickness of 300 μm compared with those without interlayer. The formation of TiCu and Ti2Cu was facilitated with the incorporation of Cu into the nugget, which effectively inhibited the formation of the brittle Ti–Fe intermetallic compounds including Fe2Ti. The nugget in the welded joint with copper interlayer in 300 μm thickness exhibited a far lower microhardness than that of the interlayer-free welded joint, and the average microhardness reduced to 604 HV in the inner nugget, which was about 36% lower than that of the interlayer-free welded joint. The tensile shear load of the welded joint exhibited an increased tendency with increasing interlayer thicknesses from 50 μm to 300 μm, and the maximum tensile shear load of 6.3 kN was obtained with the interlayer thickness of 300 μm, which was ∼97% higher than that of the interlayer-free welded joint. The welded joint with copper interlayer exhibited hybrid ductile and fragile fractured characteristics. The work would provide a facile and cost-effective method to achieve a reliable welded joint of Ti alloy and stainless steel.

An Investigation into the Measurement and Evaluation of Volumetric Voids in Advanced High Strength Steel Resistance Spot Welds

An Investigation into the Measurement and Evaluation of Volumetric Voids in Advanced High Strength Steel Resistance Spot Welds

Indentation-Free Resistance Spot Welding of SUS301L Stainless Steel

Paint-free bodywork has become an attractive alternative for rail vehicles, in the direction of easy maintainability and low manufacturing costs. However, conventional resistance spot welding inevitably leaves indentation marks to detrimentally reduce the optical homogeneity of the paint-free bodywork. In light of this, indentation-free resistance spot welding is proposed for joining SUS301L stainless steel sheets in order to achieve superior surficial integrity. A tiny SUS301L steel ball with a diameter of 1.5 mm was chosen as the intermediate filler between two steel sheets to avoid the formation of surficial indentation. The influence of welding current and welding time on the mechanical properties of joints was studied. The optimal parameters of the mechanical properties were obtained when the welding current was 8.0 kA, the welding time was 150 ms, the electrode pressure was 0.35 MPa, and the electrodes were cylindrical planar electrodes, which was determined by comparing the tensile shear test results. The surficial indentation depth was less than 1% of the plate thickness, and no observable indentations were seen on the surface of the optimized welding spots.

The High-Cycle Tensile-Shear Fatigue Properties and Failure Mechanism of Resistance Spot-Welded Advanced High-Strength Steel with a Zn Coating.

Advanced high-strength steels (AHSSs) with Zn coatings are commonly joined by the resistance spot welding (RSW) technique. However, Zn coatings could possibly cause the formation of liquid metal embrittlement (LME) cracks during the RSW process. The role of a Zn coating in the tensile-shear fatigue properties of a welding joint has not been systematically explored. In this study, the fatigue properties of tensile-shear RSW joints for bare and Zn-coated advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) specimens were comparatively studied. In particular, more severe LME cracks were triggered by employing a tilted welding electrode because much more stress was caused in the joint. LME cracks had clearly occurred in the Zn-coated steel RSW joints, as observed via optical microscopy. On the contrary, no LME cracks could be found in the RSW joints prepared with the bare steel sheets. The fatigue test results showed that the tensile-shear fatigue properties remained nearly unchanged, regardless of whether bare or Zn-coated steel was used for the RSW joints. Furthermore, Zn mapping adjacent to the crack initiation source was obtained by an electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA), and it showed no segregation of the Zn element. Thus, the failure of the RSW joints with the Zn coating had not initiated from the LME cracks. It was concluded that the fatigue cracks were initiated by the stress concentration in the notch position between the two bonded steel sheets.

Local shear fracture properties in heat-affected zone of resistance spot-welded advanced high-strength steel

In the process of resistance spot welding of advanced high-strength steel (AHSS), the development of heat-affected zones (HAZs) considerably modifies the mechanical properties of the weld region. However, the limited reporting in the study of shear behavior in the HAZ hinders the accurate prediction of joint fracture and failure behavior. This study focused on the shear fracture behavior of resistance spot-welded AHSS. Given the limited extent of the HAZ, a miniature shear test was designed and shear fracture tests were conducted on JSC590, JSC980, and JSC1180. These tests facilitated the acquisition and compilation of data regarding the shear mechanical properties of diverse steel grades and their respective HAZs. A hardness-based empirical model for the strength coefficient and the strain-hardening exponent in Hollomon's law was introduced, and this model was subsequently integrated into finite element method calculations. The accuracy of the model was validated by shear strength reproductions, exhibiting errors within the range of 5.4%–13.5% and the averaged error was less than 10%. Further analyses confirmed that stress triaxiality at critical positions varied from 0 to 0.33, indicative of shear-dominant stress conditions. Moreover, the evolution of stress states revealed a notable association between the fracture surfaces across different stress states and steel grades. These findings fill the gap regarding the shear behavior of localized HAZs and expand the understanding of their mechanical behavior under various stress states. It will contribute to accurate fracture prediction by stress triaxiality based fracture criteria, such as Modified Mohr-Coulomb (MMC) model, applied to AHSS.

Implementation of external magnetic field to improve strength of St37 steel resistance spot weld

The magnetic assist technique involves the interaction between an external magnetic field and electrical current which produces Lorentz force that influences the flow pattern of molten metal and ultimately impacts the appearance and microstructure of the weld. Many parameters may influence on this process such as welding current, time, and force as well as the working magnet distance (MD). In this study, the effects of the distance between the permanent magnet’s MD on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld nugget zone (NZ) were examined through mechanical and macro- and microstructural analyses. The results demonstrated that MD has a strong influence on the magnetic flux density which determines the joint appearance, quality, and microstructure of St37 steel. Results showed that with increasing MD, HAZ increased from 8 to 22 mm2 while NZ decreased from 26 to 19 mm2, and also, the grain size increased with increasing MD and reaching 48 µm at MD was set to 9 cm. Moreover, hardness decreased at both areas through increasing MD from (120–110) HV at HAZ and from (170–150) HV at NZ. Under the action of (electromagnetic filed) EMF, weld tensile shear strength and the cross tensile strength give the highest values equal to 172 MPa and 155 MPa, respectively, when MD is set to 4.5 cm. Besides, soundness joint was obtained at MD = 4.5 cm which confirms that this is the best distance between magnets.

An investigation on bending fatigue in a corrosive environment of dual-phase 1000 sheet steel RSW joints and damage model via experiment and numeric analysis

Fatigue, corrosion, and fatigue damage models are best addressed to improve and understand the service performance of materials, particularly automotive steel. This study is an attempt to experimentally and finite element investigates plain bending fatigue performance and damage model of DP 1000 sheet steel resistance spot welding (RSW) joints in 3% NaCl aqueous corrosive treatment. RSW applications were carried out using different weld currents. The joint samples were then subjected to optical image analysis, tensile shear, and fatigue tests (3% NaCl-aqueous and normal atmosphere). A proper damage model of RSW junctions was developed and corrected by numeric analysis. Besides, RSW nugget formation, tensile shear, and plain bending fatigue tests were also applied. Consequence, fatigue behavior, tensile load carrying capacity, and effective fracture behavior of resistance spot welded joint specimens were evaluated. Results showed that a corrosive environment negatively affected fatigue performance. With the developed model, it was observed that the fatigue life of the samples decreased by 30–35% in the fatigue tests performed in the corrosive environment. Experimental and numerical analysis results of plain bending were compatible.

Optimized designing of process parameters for CP980 steel resistance spot welding based on Orthogonal Test

Optimized designing of process parameters for CP980 steel resistance spot welding based on Orthogonal Test

Resistance Spot Welding of Stainless Steel and Titanium Plates with a Supercooled Liquid of Zr55Al10Ni5Cu30 Metallic Glass Ribbons

Resistance Spot Welding of Stainless Steel and Titanium Plates with a Supercooled Liquid of Zr55Al10Ni5Cu30 Metallic Glass Ribbons

Understanding the mechanisms behind ultrasonic vibration in resistance spot welding of aluminum and steel

An ultrasonic-assisted resistance spot welding process, which can improve the quality of aluminum/steel spot-welded joints, has been developed. However, the mechanism of the thermal-electrical-mechanical behavior caused by the ultrasonic longitudinal vibration to welding process has not been clarified. In this study, the role and impact mechanisms of ultrasonic longitudinal vibration during the welding process to form joints were confirmed by combining the microstructural characterization of the formed joints with the signal analysis of the process, as well as the analysis of the independent finite element numerical calculation results. Additionally, the interface metallurgical reaction behavior, welding defects, fracture behavior, and joint strength characteristics of ultrasonic-assisted aluminum/steel resistance spot welding joints were comprehensively analyzed, and the results indicated that the sizes of the aluminum/steel nuggets decreased. It could be attributed to the competition among multiple ultrasonic effects. Specifically, ultrasonic vibration decreased the contact resistance between the aluminum/steel sheets, whereas the acoustic cavitation and acoustic streaming effects increased the electrical conductivity of molten steel and thermal conductivity of molten aluminum, respectively. Moreover, ultrasonic vibration promoted the radial creep of molten and near-molten aluminum, which expanded in the effective bonding area between the two workpieces. Furthermore, ultrasonic vibration effectively reduced the thickness of the intermetallic compound layer (<3.0 µm), concurrently inhibited the formation of interfacial welding defects. Finally, the peak tensile-shear load of aluminum/steel joints is significantly increased under multiple ultrasonic optimization mechanisms.

Failure of dissimilar QP980/DP600 advanced high strength steels resistance spot welds

This study investigates the microstructure, failure characteristics, and mechanical properties of dissimilar resistance spot welds between QP980 quenching and partitioning steel and DP600 dual phase steel. The dissimilar spot welds exhibited a heterogeneous microstructure, with a fusion zone predominantly composed of martensite, significantly overmatching both base materials. A fully martensitic structure with grain size gradient was observed in the upper-critical heat affected zone (UCHAZ) on both sides of the dissimilar joint. In the sub-critical heat affected zone (SCHAZ), no significant phase transformation occurred on both sides. However, at high welding currents, a slight tempering of pre-existing martensite was detected on the QP980 side resulting in a minor hardness drop in this zone. There was a critical welding current at which the failure mode was changed from interfacial mode to pullout mode. The dissimilar QP/DP joint showed a lower tendency to fail via interfacial failure mode compared to similar QP/QP and DP/DP joints, attributed to a higher fusion zone hardness overmatching factor and greater nugget rotation. Pullout failure of dissimilar QP/DP combination was assessed in detail through interrupted tensile shear test. It was found that failure at stronger QP980 side occurred by ductile cracking mechanism initiated from the notch tip, while failure at softer DP600 side occurred by through-thickness localized necking. The former was found to be the prior failure mechanism controlling the load bearing capacity of the dissimilar joint. The mechanical properties of dissimilar QP/DP joints were discussed in terms of peak load and energy absorption, and then were compared to those of similar DP/DP and QP/QP joints in the light of weld microstructure and failure mechanisms.

Microhardness and microstructure correlations to the mechanical performance for dissimilar third generation AHSS resistance spot welding

In this study, an investigation was carried out to establish a correlation between microhardness and microstructure in dissimilar combination of QP980 and SPFC780Y high strength steel resistance spot welds. Optical microscope with a scanning electron microscope were used for metallography analysis for all regions of the weldment, while Vickers microhardness was implemented to present the hardness profile. It was observed that high heat input provided by high welding current and welding time can increase the mechanical performance and present the hard martensite in the fusion zone (FZ). Softening phenomena were observed in the heat-affected zone (SCHAZ) of both materials with a higher occurrence in SPFC780Y side attributed to the presence of tempered martensite. The microhardness of the FZ was found to be lower than the UCHAZ of QP980 as a result of SPFC780Y dilution in FZ affecting its chemistry and thus hardenability, microstructure and mechanical performance. The study confirms that a significant content of Silicon (Si) and Manganese (Mn) positively contributes to improving mechanical performance. Furthermore, the study introduces an effective method to confirm the symmetry of the weld and FZ chemical composition induced by the asymmetric thermophysical properties in the studied combination. It also allows for the prediction of the occurrence of softening phenomena before the welding operation, providing valuable insights for optimizing the resistance spot welding processes.

Enhancing load-bearing capacity of martensitic stainless steel resistance spot welds: Microstructural vs. geometrical approaches

The load-bearing capacity of resistance spot welds is determined by a combination of weld geometrical attributes, such as the size of the weld nugget (WN), and weld metallurgical features. When resistance spot welds are made on martensitic stainless steels (MSSs), their load-bearing capacity is reduced due to the formation of a brittle martensitic microstructure within the WN. In this study, we investigated two distinct approaches to enhance the mechanical properties of AISI420 MSS spot welds. The results indicated that manipulating the WN size did not effectively produce strong welds in both tensile-shear (TS) and cross-tension (CT) tests. Therefore, we focused on examining the impact of the weld microstructure by employing two different interlayers: low carbon steel (LCS) and pure nickel. The analysis using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), along with equilibrium and non-equilibrium phase diagrams, revealed that the microstructure of the WN with low carbon steel interlayer of various thicknesses exhibited similarities with spot welds made without an interlayer, and the solidification mode was still δ-ferrite. This microstructure primarily consisted of martensite (M) and likely residual delta ferrite (δ) phases, resulting in no significant improvements in mechanical properties. In contrast, the utilization of the nickel interlayer led to remarkable enhancements in mechanical properties. This improvement can be attributed to a shift in the solidification mode from primary delta (δ) to austenite (γ) within an optimal interlayer thickness. This transition facilitated the development of a predominantly austenitic (γ) microstructure, contributing to the formation of an exceptionally tough microstructure within the weld nugget. Consequently, the load-bearing capacity was significantly improved.

A comparative study on resistance spot and laser beam spot welding of ultra-high strength steel for automotive applications

In this study, the effect of resistance spot welding (RSW) and laser beam spot welding (LBSW) processes on evolution of microstructure, load endurance capabilities, heat affected zone (HAZ) softening, and corrosion resistance of ultra-high-strength (UHSS) steel joints welded in lap joint design is investigated. The UHSS sheets of dual phase 1000 grade (UHSDP1000) having 1.20 mm thickness were joined using the RSW and LBSW parameters optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The microstructural features of welding regions of RSW and LBSW joints were studied using optical microscopy (OM). The load endurance capabilities of RSW and LBSW joints were assessed using the tensile shear failure load (TSFL) and cross-tensile failure load (CTFL) tests. The ruptured surfaces of TSFL and CTFL tested samples were examined utilizing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The microhardness distribution of divergent regions of RSW and LBSW joints was evaluated and imputed to the TSFL and CTFL failure of joints. The corrosion resistance of RSW and LBSW joints was analyzed using potentiodynamic corrosion and immersion corrosion tests. The RSW joints showed 183% and 62.79% greater TSFL and CTFL endurance capabilities than LBSW joints. The TSFL and CTFL endurance capabilities of LBSW joints are inferior to RSW joints due to the smaller load bearing area. It causes the stress concentration in FZ and HAZ of LBSW joints. The RSW joints and LBSW joints disclosed TSFL and CTFL failure in button pull out rupture mode with tearing of HAZ. The failure of RSW and LBSW joints in HAZ is due to the softening caused by martensitic tempering and coarsening of grains. The LBSW joints disclosed inferior resistance to corrosion than RSW joints due to the higher martensite content which contributes to greater fraction of favorable pitting sites and decreased corrosion resistance.

Bibliometric and systematic analysis on electric resistance spot welding of 22MnB5 steel

Bibliometric and systematic analysis on electric resistance spot welding of 22MnB5 steel

An experimental methodology to characterize load-based fracture models of third generation advanced high strength steel resistance spot welds

An experimental methodology to characterize load-based fracture models of third generation advanced high strength steel resistance spot welds

Transitioning solidification mode via electroplated Ni coatings in martensitic stainless steel resistance spot welds: new insights into fabricating tough microstructure

The present study addresses the enhancement of fracture toughness of martensitic stainless steel (MSS) spot welds by utilizing through electroplating of Ni on MSS sheets. The equilibrium and non-equilibrium solidification modelling showed that by Ni coating with 50 μm thick on 1.5 mm thick MSSs, the solidification mode changes from δ-ferrite to γ-austenite, leading to a weld nugget (WN) dominated by austenite grains. Moreover, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) showed that the other phases (martensite, δ-ferrite) appeared in band areas of WN owing to incomplete mixing of MSS and the Ni-coating. The tough microstructure in the Ni-coated MSS spot welds provided superior mechanical properties compared to non-coated welds, both in cross-tension (CT) and tensile-shear (TS) tests. Notably, the TS and CT strengths of the Ni-coated MSS spot welds showed a remarkable increase of 57% and 127%, respectively, in comparison to the conventional bare MSS spot welds. Furthermore, in terms of failure energy, the Ni-coated MSS spot welds demonstrated a substantial enhancement of 296% in TS and 520% in CT, when compared to their non-coated counterparts. This research study showcased the effectiveness of Ni electroplating as an industrial method for improving the spot weldability of MSSs.

Optimisation and study of a welding process for aluminium and galvanised steel based on resistance welding

In this study, taking six-series aluminium alloy and DC06 galvanised steel resistance spot welding as the object of study, the impacts of the electrode cap shape and process parameters on the joint welding performance were analysed, and the electrode cap was optimised. The optimised process parameters involved the use of spherical asymmetric electrodes and a pre-welding preheating step for zinc extrusion treatment, followed by a double pulse for welding. The optimal parameters resulted in an aluminium/steel spot welding head average pull shear failure load of 2858.7 N and aluminium/aluminium spot welding head failure force of 2436 N, reaching 117.3% of its original value. The minimum force value (2253.4 N) was greater than 92.5%, and the failure section was all from the aluminium side in parent material button failure, achieving good final results.