Residue Layer Research Articles

Estimation of the cover and management factor based on stratified coverage and remote sensing indices: a case study in the Loess Plateau of China

We attempt to describe the cover and management (C) factor more comprehensively through the use of a simple and efficient method. We measure the coverage of each vegetation layer and C factor for 152 sampled plots in the Ansai watershed. We propose four stratified coverage indices (green coverage (V G), total coverage (V T), probability coverage (V P), weight coverage (V W)), derive green and yellow vegetation indices from Landsat 8 OLI images to reflect green and residue cover, and construct and validate C factor estimation models from stratified coverage and remote sensing indices, respectively. (1) V T and V P present C factor estimation advantages for grassland and shrub land. V W can better illustrate the C factor due to the relatively complete spatial structuring of woodland and orchard land. For cropland, four stratified coverage indices present the same estimation capacities for the C factor. Except for cropland and grassland, the estimation capabilities of V G are relatively low because the residue layer is ignored. (2) The C factor is more sensitive to yellow vegetation indices, which indicates that senescent fractional cover and litter are important and cannot be ignored. The linear and non-linear models can explain 56.6 and 61.8% of C factor variation, respectively, and the linear model is more accurate than the non-linear model. (3) Compared to traditional indices (projective coverage and single remote sensing indices), stratified coverage indices and a combination of several remote sensing indices can estimate the C factor more effectively. At the field scale, the C value estimation model can be selected according to the land-use type. At the watershed and regional scales, a linear model is recommended for C factor estimation.

Rigidity Strengthening: A Mechanism for Protein-Ligand Binding.

Protein-ligand binding is essential to almost all life processes. The understanding of protein-ligand interactions is fundamentally important to rational drug and protein design. Based on large scale data sets, we show that protein rigidity strengthening or flexibility reduction is a mechanism in protein-ligand binding. Our approach based solely on rigidity is able to unveil a surprisingly apparently long-range contribution of apparently four residue layers to protein-ligand binding, which has ramifications for drug and protein design. Additionally, the present work reveals that among various pairwise interactions, the short-range ones within the distance of the van der Waals diameter are most important. It is found that the present approach outperforms all other state-of-the-art scoring functions for protein-ligand binding affinity predictions of two benchmark test sets.

Regional, seasonal, cultivar and crop-year effects on sugarcane responses to residue mulching

Inconsistent agronomic responses of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) to residue mulching are due to complex interactions between soil, climatic, management and genetic factors. Information on mulch responses of diverse cultivars in contrasting environments, over multiple ratoon crops, in different cropping seasons (winter vs summer) are limited. This study aimed to quantify mulch responses in three diverse environments typical of the South African sugarcane industry and to identify factors causing such responses. Three separate factorial experiments (eight cultivars, burnt or mulched at harvest) were established in the rainfed, irrigated and temperate regions of the industry, harvested over multiple ratoon crops (up to six), with summer and winter crop starts. Mulching was significantly beneficial to cane yields in the rainfed trial (up to 20t/ha improvement in a single crop), marginally beneficial in the irrigated trial, and unfavourable in the cooler temperate trial. The effects of cultivar and season (winter vs summer crop start) were negligible in comparison to regional and crop-year effects. Cultivar sensitivities to mulching were only evident in the temperate trial. A principal components analysis (PCA) biplot separated crops according to their responses to mulching and identified climatic factors responsible for differential responses. Water availability (as represented by a crop model derived drought index) was a primary driver of positive yield responses in the rainfed trial and the differential ratoon responses observed in the irrigated trial. Mulch responses in the irrigated trial were rainfall dependent, ranging from 0 to 20% improvements in water limiting years, to negative responses when water was not limiting. Low temperatures created by the residue layer was identified as a cause of negative yield responses observed in the temperate trial, mainly through delayed canopy development effects. Multivariate methods such as PCA are recommended to identify climatic, soil, genetic and management causes of differential mulch responses in sugarcane, either through analysis of multi-environment experiments or through meta-analysis of available literature.

Determination of Metal Elements in Wine Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS).

We developed a method for sensitive elemental analysis of wines using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). In order to overcome the inefficiency of direct ablation of bulk wine (an organic liquid), a thin layer of wine residue was prepared on a metallic target according to an appropriated heating procedure applied to an amount of liquid wine dropped on the target surface. The obtained ensemble was thus ablated. Such a sample preparation procedure used a very small volume of 2 mL of wine and took only 30 min without reagent or solvent. The results show the detection of tens of metal and non-metal elements including majors (Na, Mg, K, Ca), minors, and traces (Li, B, Si, P, Ti, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Ba, and Pb) in wines purchased from local supermarkets and from different production places in France. Commercially available wines were then spiked with certified standard solutions of Ti and Fe. Three series of laboratory reference samples were thus prepared using three different wines (a red wine and a white wine from a same production region and a red wine from another production region) with concentrations of Ti and Fe in the range of 1-40 mg/L. Calibration graphs established with the spiked samples allowed extracting the figures-of-merit parameters of the method for wine analysis such as the coefficient of determination ( R2) and the limits of detection and quantification (LOD and LOQ). The calibration curves built with the three wines were then compared. We studied the residual matrix effect between these wines in the determination of the concentrations of Ti and Fe.

Effect of iron oxides on sliding friction of thermally sprayed 1010 steel coated cylinder bores

In-situ Raman spectroscopy was performed on 1010 steel coatings thermally sprayed on an Al-Si alloy on A 380 (Al-9.0% Si) cylinder bore and subjected to reciprocating sliding against various coated rings to investigate the progression of iron oxide formation during sliding. The coatings evaluated for the top compression ring (TCR) included diamond-like carbon (DLC) and chromium nitride (CrN). The reciprocating tests were conducted under unlubricated and boundary lubricated conditions. During unlubricated sliding, a running-in period was observed with increasing coefficient of friction (COF) values which corresponded to the conversion of the initial FeO, present in the as-deposited coating, to Fe3O4 and then to Fe2O3 as identified by changes in Raman spectra obtained at short intervals during the test. Once a Fe2O3 layer was formed, a steady state regime was obtained with a COF of 0.4 that was accompanied by the adhesion of the oxide debris generated during sliding to the counterfaces. The DLC coated TCR provided low steady state COF (0.18) and volumetric wear of 1010 steel, with negligible debris formation. Boundary lubricated sliding tests, with an initial period of unlubricated sliding, resulted in low steady state COF value of 0.10 for DLC and 0.16 for CrN. The low friction and wear of 1010 coatings observed during boundary lubricated sliding against DLC coated TCR was due to a composite tribolayer consisting of an amorphous carbon layer on top of an oil residue layer that was formed on the sliding surfaces.

Combustion and thermal degradation properties of flame-retardant TPU based on EMIMPF6

Ionic liquids have been highlighted as nonflammable, environmentally friendly, and suggested as possible solvents. Here, the application of one ionic liquid (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate, EMIMPF6) in thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) is studied with a focus on fire safety improvement. The impact of the composition on combustion- and thermal degradation-related properties is investigated for EMIMPF6 concentrations of additive (~2 mass%). A large impact on the combustion and thermal degradation properties is found for TPU containing EMIMPF6. EMIMPF6 can catalyze TPU decomposing to form char residue layer at low temperature. Then, the good flame retardant and smoke suppression properties are obtained by introducing EMIMPF6 into TPU system.

Highly Effective P–P Synergy of a Novel DOPO-Based Flame Retardant for Epoxy Resin

A novel flame retardant (FR) DOPO-PEPA, which was synthesized via Atherton–Todd reaction between 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) and 1-oxo-4-hydroxymethyl-2,6,7-trioxa-l-phosphabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (PEPA), was used as an additive-type FR in epoxy resin (EP). The results of the limiting oxygen index (LOI), vertical burning test, and cone calorimeter test indicated that the flame retardance of FR-EP composites is dependent on the chemical structure of phosphorus-based FRs. EP/DOPO-PEPA shows pretty good mechanical properties and a relatively high degree of cross-linking. Furthermore, the synergy as DOPO-PEPA was more efficient than that of DOPO or PEPA alone to flame retardant EP. When the FR additives were 9.1%, the EP/DOPO-PEPA acquired a LOI value of 35%, UL94 V-0 rating, and the lowest peak of heat release rate (PHRR) of 595 kW/m2. Furthermore, its continuous and firm char residue layer also reinforced this kind of action.

Scale and diversity of the physical technosphere: A geological perspective

We assess the scale and extent of the physical technosphere, defined here as the summed material output of the contemporary human enterprise. It includes active urban, agricultural and marine components, used to sustain energy and material flow for current human life, and a growing residue layer, currently only in small part recycled back into the active component. Preliminary estimates suggest a technosphere mass of approximately 30 trillion tonnes (Tt), which helps support a human biomass that, despite recent growth, is ~5 orders of magnitude smaller. The physical technosphere includes a large, rapidly growing diversity of complex objects that are potential trace fossils or ‘technofossils’. If assessed on palaeontological criteria, technofossil diversity already exceeds known estimates of biological diversity as measured by richness, far exceeds recognized fossil diversity, and may exceed total biological diversity through Earth’s history. The rapid transformation of much of Earth’s surface mass into the technosphere and its myriad components underscores the novelty of the current planetary transformation.

Residue-C effects on denitrification vary with soil depth

A stable isotope (13C-residue, 15N-NO3– fertiliser) approach combined with measurements of soil pore space gas concentrations was used to investigate spatial and temporal mechanisms of residue carbon (C) affecting denitrification. Whilst relationships between residue addition and N2O fluxes have previously been well characterised, the influence of residues on production and reduction of N2O at depth is less well understood. Here we investigated the relationship between residue-13C addition (0, 1 and 2 mg C g−1 soil) and denitrification (15N-N2O and 15N-N2 production) at 2, 5 and 8 cm soil depths and also fluxes from the soil surface. Hydrophobic probes that equilibrate with the soil gas phase were used to extract gases at soil depth, followed by analysis for 15N-N2O, 15N-N2, 13C-CO2 and O2 concentrations. 15N-N2O and CO2 surface fluxes peaked one day after 14NH415NO3 application (1 mg N g−1 soil), with residue application resulting in a more than 20-fold greater 15N-N2O emission rate compared to the non-amended control. Eight days after N application 15N-N2O pore space concentrations had significantly increased 20-fold at 8 cm depth below the residue layer compared to no residue application. However, simultaneous increases in 15N-N2 surface fluxes and profile concentrations showed efficient reduction of the N2O at shallow depth (3–10 cm depth) resulting in surface emission of N2 rather than N2O. Our results have implications for management to lower emissions as denitrifier activity at greater depth, and the greater reduction of N2O to N2, appeared to be indirectly driven by residue addition via the depletion of O2 during aerobic heterotrophic respiration in the surface layer. In contrast, net surface fluxes of N2O were more directly related to the residue addition through substrate provision for denitrification.

Preparation of modified hollow glass microspheres using Fe2O3 and its flame retardant properties in thermoplastic polyurethane

In this paper, the hollow glass microspheres coated with Fe2O3 (HGM-Fe2O3) were synthesized and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDS) and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy, respectively. Then, the flame retardant and smoke suppression properties of HGM-Fe2O3 in thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) composites have been investigated intensively using several methods, including cone calorimeter test (CCT), smoke density test (SDT), scanning electron microscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis/infrared spectrometry. The CCT results showed that HGM-Fe2O3 can greatly enhance the flame retardance of polymer matrix materials compared with TPU. For example, HGM-Fe2O3 can reduce heat release rate, total heat release, and smoke release of TPU composites in the combustion process. The SDT results showed that HGM-Fe2O3 can effectively decrease the amount of smoke production in the test. Furthermore, the TG results indicate that HGM-Fe2O3 can decrease the initial decomposition temperature, and change the structure of char residue layer.

Friction reduction mechanisms in cast iron sliding against DLC: Effect of biofuel (E85) diluted engine oil

Parasitic friction losses during piston ring-cylinder liner interactions in an internal combustion (IC) engine consume large portions of the available fuel energy. This work investigates whether the tribological performance of grey cast iron (CI) cylinder liner would be improved using a piston ring coated with non-hydrogenated diamond-like carbon (NH-DLC) in comparison to uncoated CI and steel rings. Coefficient of friction (COF) values and volumetric wear losses of CI were determined using ball-on-disk type tests as a function of sliding distance. CI tested against itself during boundary lubricated sliding with synthetic engine oil showed a COF of 0.14 and a volumetric wear of 11.0×10−4mm3 after 6×105 cycles, whereas the use of NH-DLC coated counterface resulted in a COF of 0.11 and lesser wear of 0.5×10−4mm3. Dilution of the engine oil by ethanol containing E85 biofuel was beneficial as COF was further reduced to 0.08 for CI tested against NH-DLC while maintaining low wear of 0.2×10−4mm3. According to TEM and XPS analyses, an oil residue layer (ORL) formed on the CI contact surfaces as a result of sliding-induced degradation of zinc-dialkyldithiophospahte (ZDDP) additive in the oil. The ORL, which consisted of nano-crystalline particles of sulphides and phosphates of zinc (anti-wear components) embedded in an amorphous carbon matrix, was responsible for maintaining low wear. Ethanol dilution of the synthetic oil facilitated the formation of ORL. TEM/EELS studies of the NH-DLC counterface provided evidence for OH adsorption and passivation of carbon bonds at the surface that reduced the friction. It is anticipated that piston rings coated with NH-DLC run against CI liners would show low friction and wear during boundary lubricated sliding, an effect that could be enhanced when ethanol diluted oil is used.

Pad surface and coefficient of friction correlation analysis during friction between felt pad and single-crystal silicon

In wafer polishing pad surface plays a crucial role in the polishing process. With the increase of friction time between pad and wafer, the pad becomes flattened or glazed with particles clogging the pores of the pad and forming a layer of slurry residue and wafer particles, leading to changes of COF, material removal rates and higher defects on the wafer surface. Thus, this study aims to determine the correlation between pad surface deformation, slurry adhesive rate and Coefficient of friction (COF) during friction between felt pad and single -crystal silicon, to analyze the relationship between pad condition and COF. The real-time COF between felt pad and single-crystal silicon wafer are tested which are sorted in groups depending on various loads and oscillation frequencies and surfaces of felt pads measuring by Scanning electron microscope (SEM) are compared. The correlation between pad surface deformation and abrasive adhesion and COF is evaluated through analyzing the experiment results.

Quantitative scanning thermal microscopy of graphene devices on flexible polyimide substrates

A triple-scan scanning thermal microscopy (SThM) method and a zero-heat flux laser-heated SThM technique are investigated for quantitative thermal imaging of flexible graphene devices. A similar local tip-sample thermal resistance is observed on both the graphene and metal areas of the sample, and is attributed to the presence of a polymer residue layer on the sample surface and a liquid meniscus at the tip-sample junction. In addition, it is found that the tip-sample thermal resistance is insensitive to the temperature until it begins to increase as the temperature increases to 80 °C and exhibits an abrupt increase at 110 °C because of evaporation of the liquid meniscus at the tip-sample junction. Moreover, the variation in the tip-sample thermal resistance due to surface roughness is within the experimental tolerance except at areas with roughness height exceeding tens of nanometers. Because of the low thermal conductivity of the flexible polyimide substrate, the SThM measurements have found that the temperature rise in flexible graphene devices is more than one order of magnitude higher than those reported for graphene devices fabricated on a silicon substrate with comparable dimensions and power density. Unlike a graphene device on a silicon substrate where the majority of the electrical heating in the graphene device is conducted vertically through the thin silicon dioxide dielectric layer to the high-thermal conductivity silicon substrate, lateral heat spreading is important in the flexible graphene devices, as shown by the observed decrease in the average temperature rise normalized by the power density with decreasing graphene channel length from about 30 μm to 10 μm. However, it is shown by numerical heat transfer analysis that this trend is mainly caused by the size scaling of the thermal spreading resistance of the polymer substrate instead of lateral heat spreading by the graphene. In addition, thermoelectric effects are found to be negligible compared to Joule heating in the flexible graphene devices measured in this work.

Influence of Cuprous Oxide on Enhancing the Flame Retardancy and Smoke Suppression of Epoxy Resins Containing Microencapsulated Ammonium Polyphosphate

In this work, Cu2O exhibited better synergistic effect with microencapsulated ammonium polyphosphate (MAPP) than other metal oxides, such as CuO, ZnO, SnO, Fe2O3, Ni2O3, and Co2O3, on improving the flame retardancy of epoxy resins (EP). Moreover, the addition of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) could further decrease the total smoke production and carbon monoxide production. The analysis of char residues and evolved gases indicated that Cu2O was beneficial to enhance the formation amount, intumescent degree, and compactness of char. The protective layer of intumescent char residue could hinder the decomposition of EP and diffusion of gaseous products, such as hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds and carbon monoxide (CO). In addition, Cu2O also played a role in conversion of CO to CO2 through a redox cycle, involving the reduction of Cu2+—Cu+—Cu0 by CO and the oxidation of Cu0—Cu+—Cu2+ by O2. The possible flame retardant, smoke suppression, and CO oxidation mechanisms were proposed.

Transparent Aqueous Mg(OH)2 Nanodispersion for Transparent and Flexible Polymer Film with Enhanced Flame-Retardant Property

A transparent aqueous nanodispersion of magnesium hydroxide (MH) is first synthesized by using a rotating packed bed (RPB) reactor. Based on this nanodispersion, we further fabricate a transparent poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/MH nanocomposite with enhanced flame-retardant property by a solution-mixing method. The PVA/MH nanocomposite can keep good transparency even at high MH contents. The limiting oxygen index (LOI) of PVA/MH nanocomposite with 50 phr MH is improved by 45% compared to pure PVA. The peak of heat release rate (pHRR) in the microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC) significantly reduces from 453 W/g for pure PVA to 332 W/g. Importantly, a smooth and compact residue layer for the PVA/MH nanocomposite is formed during combustion, which yields a barrier for the transfer of heat and oxygen. These results indicate that the PVA/MH is an excellent transparent flame-retardant material, which opens a door to manufacture transparent and fire-resistant polymer-based nanocomposites with environmental-friend...

Working characteristics of external distributed feedback polymer lasers with varying waveguiding structures

We report the fabrication and characterization of second-order external distributed feedback (DFB) lasers based on blue-emitting polymer poly (9, 9-dioctyl-fluorene) (PFO). The relief grating prepared in the photo-resist layer on top of the gain medium was directly employed as the resonator. The effect of various structural parameters including the thickness of the active film, the thickness of the residue layer, and the depth of the relief grating on performance of these polymer lasers was investigated. An analytical approach based on the slab waveguiding theory and the Bragg condition was developed to accurately determine the lasing wavelength. We found that laser threshold increases monotonously as the thickness of the residue layer increases. The presence of the residue layer between the relief grating and the organic semiconductor layer weakens the strength of light coupling between the two layers, leading to a decreased gain for the specific lasing mode. The lowest laser threshold level of 80 μJ cm−2 was obtained when the thickness of the gain medium was around 250 nm, indicating an optimum balance between light feedback provided by the grating and optical amplification in the organic semiconductor. Our results not only provide insights into working mechanisms of external DFB polymer lasers, but also design rules for fabricating them.

焼却残渣の土壌還元化促進方法に関する研究(その2) -塩類の洗い出し促進方法としての固化焼却灰の破砕処理および破砕不燃残渣との混合処理の有効性-

焼却残渣の土壌還元化促進方法に関する研究(その2) -塩類の洗い出し促進方法としての固化焼却灰の破砕処理および破砕不燃残渣との混合処理の有効性-

Effects of soil cover and protective measures on reducing runoff and soil loss under artificial rainfall

The hazards from wind, sand, and soil erosion caused by human activities, such as residue slopes in abandoned urban mines, have resulted in a vicious circle of environmental degradation. Selecting the optimal protective engineering method in mountainous areas has become a major difficulty in recent years, and the primary goal of our research is to accelerate the process of ecosystem reconstruction to maintain water and soil quality. In this study, cover soil of 10, 20, and 30 cm in depth was spread on the 30° accumulation slopes composed of loose residue from the Huangyuan Quarry, Beijing, and combined with two protection measures: eco-bags and bamboo fences. Runoff and soil loss from the aboveground, soil and residue layers were measured under rainfall intensities of 30, 60 and 120 mm/h generated with a rainfall simulator. The results indicated that both eco-bags and bamboo fences decreased runoff and soil loss. Bamboo fences were better at intercepting water under low runoff, whereas soil loss was more strongly reduced by eco-bags. The analysis also demonstrated that the depth of soil cover had an effect on runoff and soil loss. These findings will enrich the understanding of the effects of human activities on surface mines and provide a scientific basis for the ecological restoration of mines using engineering methods.

Studying interfacial bonding at buried polymer–zinc interfaces

Abstract This manuscript is a critical appraisal of our recent studies on the possible parameters influencing the interfacial bonding properties between carboxylic polymers and Zn surfaces as well as approaches to effectively understand interfacial phenomena. It has been shown that different surface pretreatments result in a set of ranging chemical compositions, morphologies, roughnesses and semiconductor properties, while each parameter in turn influences the interfacial properties. Moreover, polymer functional groups available for interfacial interactions effectively influence the interfacial phenomena. To overcome the limited analytical depths of the available spectroscopic techniques to study underneath thick polymer coatings, i.e. buried interfaces, several approaches are examined in this study. Polymer and metal interfaces are modeled by adsorption of the representative functional molecules forming thin semi-monolayers on the metal surface. Towards understanding the real polymer and metal interactions, polymer coatings were mechanically removed from the metal surface and residue layers were shown to exhibit the metal and polymer interface. Moreover, interfaces were analyzed by means of Kretschmann geometry in which a thin metallic substrate was deposited on an internal reflection element. In this case, an electric filed passes the metallic substrate and reaches the metal and polymer interfaces. Both formation and degradation of the interfacial bonding in dry and wet conditions were analyzed respectively. The later case was integrated with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to obtain a thorough understanding of the ongoing polymer degradation and interfacial electrochemical interactions.

Increasing water use efficiency of irrigated sugarcane production in South Africa through better agronomic practices

In South Africa (SA) approximately 30% of sugarcane is grown under irrigation and there is increasing pressure to demonstrate efficient use of limited water resources. Agronomic practices such as the use of a crop residue layer, changed row spacing, growing suitable varieties and accurate irrigation scheduling could potentially increase water use efficiency (WUE) by saving water and/or increasing yield. The aim of the study was to investigate to what extent WUE of irrigated sugarcane production in SA can be improved by better agronomic practices, and to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms involved in crop response to these factors.An overhead irrigated field experiment was conducted near Komatipoort, South Africa on a shallow, well-drained, sandy clay loam over a four year period (one plant (P) and three ratoon crops (R1, R2 and R3)). Treatments consisted of factorial combinations of variety (N14 and N26), row spacing (single rows spaced at 1.5m and dual rows spaced at 1.8m) and soil surface cover (bare soil and crop residue layer). Measurements included tiller population, interception of photosynthetically active radiation (FIPAR), soil water content, and cane yield at harvest. Crop water use (CWU) was estimated using the water balance approach.This study showed that significant reductions in water use and irrigation requirements, and increases in WUE, are possible by using a crop residue layer to cover the soil. Water savings were largest in P (26% in CWU and 32% in irrigation requirement) but substantial savings were also achieved in R crops (about 15%). It is essential to practice accurate irrigation scheduling to realise these savings, taking into account soil cover and cultivar effects, especially during the period of partial canopy. Although the residue layer caused small reductions in yield in the P, R1 and R2 crops (on average 9%) these were not statistically significant. The combined effect of large CWU reductions and small changes in cane yield resulted in increased WUE (on average 18%).These responses to a residue layer were achieved through a reduced rate of canopy development due to delayed emergence of tillers, causing less green canopy cover and reduced CWU, especially during the period of partial canopy cover when stalk growth has not yet commenced. CWU and FIPAR were affected much less during the subsequent period of stalk growth, thus affecting cane yield minimally, provided irrigation scheduling was adjusted.Variety N14 consistently developed a canopy more rapidly, intercepted more radiation and achieved a higher yield than N26. Row configuration had a significant impact on canopy development, seasonal FIPAR, final stalk population but did not affect cane yield or WUE.The study produced quantitative data for parameterising crop models which will improve their reliability in irrigation management and yield prediction applications.