Building Code Requirements Research Articles

Quality consideration of building and renovation works while forensic structural inspections to determine the volume and cost of construction

Currently, forensic methods and regulations in the field of construction do not explain how quality of work affects the procedure of forensic examinations and research related to determining the work scope.
 While carrying out building and renovation services, it is possible to control provided construction and renovation services, establish their physical volume and quality. While research, forensic expert can identify violations of building codes, as well as determine the cost of refurbishment or elimination of defects made providing services.
 The scoop of performed works is determined by geometric parameters of construction elements, established during field surveys using design and as-built documentation.
 While carrying out field surveys, it is necessary (along with the determination of service scope) to pay attention to the compliance of the work performed with the requirements of building codes.
 The article outlines problematic issues and provides a list of basic indicators determining the scoop and quality of the construction works carried out, indicated in the reporting documentation drawn up by contractors based on results of activities in the field of construction. Actual issue arising in the establishment of the scoop and cost of construction work is considered that quality does not meet the requirements of regulatory documents in the field of construction.
 It is explained how the quality of the work performed affects the results of research related to the determination of the actually completed volumes of repair, building and renovation and construction work.

ANALISIS STRUKTUR GEDUNG IRNA (INSTALASI RAWAT INAP) RUMAH SAKIT UMUM PASAMAN BARAT MENGGUNAKAN SNI BETON BERTULANG 2847:2019 DAN SNI GEMPA 1726:2019

Indonesia continues to follow the development of building standards in the world which are dynamically changing for the better and safer, both in loading regulations, planning for concrete structures, steel structures, and planning for earthquake resistance. The latest planning standard methods reviewed in this study are SNI-03-1726-2019, SNI-03-2847-2019 and RSNI-03-1727-2020 replacing SNI-03-1726-2012, SNI-03-1727-2013, and SNI-03-2847-2013. The basic difference in SNI-03-1726:2012 compared to SNI-03-1726:2019 is in the coefficients of Fa and Fv, namely the coefficient of soil sites for a long earthquake period of 1 second and in SNI-03-2847:2019 which refers to ACI 318M-14 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. The results of this study found that this change in the modeling of the West Pasaman Regional General Hospital met the requirements for the SNI-03-1726-2019 earthquake design and the SNI-03-2847-2019 reinforced concrete design.

Laboratory Investigations into the Bearing Capacity of Straw Bales for Low-Rise Building Applications

Investigations were carried out to study the mechanical performance under uniaxial load of unplastered and plastered straw bales. Results from tests on 30 rice straw bales indicated nonlinear load-bearing properties with large deformations and anisotropy. Since the deformations observed did not conform to the current building code requirements, the evaluation of ultimate bearing capacity through the maximum axial vertical load was not possible. To obtain the design strength of rice straw bales in composite walls, further 21 specimens of plastered straw bales were also tested in compression. The permissible deformation of the straw bales was evaluated. It is noteworthy that the large deformability of straw bales can reduce the damage to structures after an earthquake. Consequently, the straw bale use can widely enhance the seismic performance of low-rise buildings.

Investigating the reliability of shear strength equations in TS500 and ACI318-19

Lateral loads (e.g., wind and earthquake loads) lead to shear forces as well as the axial loads and moments on the structural members. Although reinforced concrete (RC) columns are commonly assumed as slender members and are not expected to represent shear dominant response characteristics, experimental studies have shown that even slender columns have shear responses. Hence, in seismic design, the shear strength of columns must be accurately predicted to prevent shear failure of columns. Validation of Requirements for Design and Construction of RC structures (TS500) for shear strength calculation of RC columns by a broad range of test data has been neglected in the literature. In this study, 57 test results of rectangular RC columns were collected from available laboratory tests to verify the shear strength calculation approach in TS500. Additionally, a statistical comparison of results obtained from TS500 with Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI318-19) has been studied in this study. Maximum shear strength of RC columns obtained from the previously studied test data was compared with shear strengths calculated according to TS 500 as well as with the results obtained from ACI318-19. Comparisons are scrutinized in terms of shear-span-to-depth ratios, reinforcing ratios, material properties, and stirrup spacing as well as axial load ratios applied on top of the columns. Investigation of existing design equations reveals a significant difference in prediction. This study will be extended by adding further test results from the literature to provide crucial comments about the shear strength calculation of RC columns in TS500.

Dynamic Response Spectrum of Multi-Story Shear Frame Subjected to Moderate Ground Motion

Design structures to resist natural hazards is a vital issue to mitigate the impact of such threats. Earthquakes could lead to numerous injuries and infrastructure destruction. Specifically, when structures are not designed to resist seismic load. This article presents dynamic analysis of four-story shear frame under moderate ground motion to determine the dynamic response. The proposed location of the considered frame is near Iraq-Iran border due to increase of seismic activities in last years. Structures in the considered seismic zone are essentially either residential or commercial buildings and not designed to resist seismic load, therefore structural system failure is probable. Simplified model is considered to determine response spectrum according to the International Building Code requirements. The algorithm of the analysis is developed using MATLAB® code to get mode shapes, response spectrum acceleration, maximum displacement, maximum shear forces, and modal participation mass at each story. The article develops design response spectra curve of Erbil city. Furthermore, the analysis results showed that first mode shape has more contribution than the other modes because higher percentage of the mass of the shear frame responds to the ground motion, and 88.53% of shear-frame mass is participating responds to the ground motion in the same mode

A comparison of structural analyses procedures for earthquake-resistant design of buildings

Several seismic analysis procedures in the latest standards have been developed for structural design and assessment. Since these methods have different advantages and limitations, a comprehensive comparison of these procedures is required to select the most effective one. The three most common methods are the Equivalent Lateral Force (ELF) method, Modal Response Spectrum (MRS) analysis, and Linear Response History (LRH) analysis. This research intends to present a comparative study of these methods, according to ASCE 7-16 standard by utilizing ETABSR software. They were examined in terms of base shear and distribution of story shear forces for a sixth-story reinforced concrete (RC) building, designed according to ACI 318-19 standard. Building code requirements for RC structures with the dual lateral force-resisting system in a high seismic zone are discussed. The results show that the ELF procedure's base shear for the building under consideration is conservative compared to the MRS or LRH analysis. The vertical distribution of the ELF procedure is just a function of the structure's fundamental period; however, the advantage of the MRS and LRH analysis is that they provide information as to how the distribution of mass and stiffness of a structure influences the member forces and displacements.

Finite element analysis of reinforced concrete deep beam with large opening

BackgroundA series of nonlinear finite element (FE) analyses was performed to evaluate the different design approaches available in the literature for design of reinforced concrete deep beam with large opening. Three finite element models were developed and analyzed using the computer software ATENA. The three FE models of the deep beams were made for details based on three different design approaches: (Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R., Magazine of Concrete Res_30:89-95, 1978), (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, 2006), and Strut and Tie method (STM) as per ACI 318-14 (ACI318 Committee, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI318-14), 2014). Results from the FE analyses were compared with the three approaches to evaluate the effect of different reinforcement details on the structural behavior of transfer deep beam with large opening.ResultsThe service load deflection is the same for the three models. The stiffnesses of the designs of (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, 2006) and STM reduce at a load higher than the ultimate design load while the (Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R., Magazine of Concrete Res_30:89-95, 1978) reduces stiffness at a load close to the ultimate design load. The deep beam designed according to (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, 2006) model starts cracking at load higher than the beam designed according to (Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R., Magazine of Concrete Res_30:89-95, 1978) method. The deep beam detailed according to (Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R., Magazine of Concrete Res_30:89-95, 1978) and (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, 2006) failed due to extensive shear cracks. The specimen detailed according to STM restores its capacity after initial failure. The three models satisfy the deflection limit.ConclusionIt is found that the three design approaches give sufficient ultimate load capacity. The amount of reinforcement given by both (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, 2006) and (Kong, F.K. and Sharp, G.R., Magazine of Concrete Res_30:89-95, 1978) is the same. The reinforcement used by the STM method is higher than the other two methods. Additional reinforcement is needed to limit the crack widths. (Mansur, M. A., Design of reinforced concrete beams with web openings, (2006)) method gives lesser steel reinforcement requirement and higher failure load compared to the other two methods.

Building code amendment and building resilience: perspective of building code users in New Zealand

PurposeThe process followed in amending building code creates problems for code users within the building industry. These problems include the need and frequency of changes made to building code, access to updated documents, method of communication, amendment interval and amendment pathway. This study aims to explore the viewpoints of building code users regarding building code amendments in New Zealand.Design/methodology/approachUsing a closed-ended questionnaire survey, this paper examined the New Zealand building code amendments by evaluating the views of experienced and relevant stakeholders within the research area.FindingsA high proportion (50.90%) of the survey participants agreed to a three-years building code amendment cycle, as against the current biannual Amendment practiced in New Zealand. Findings from the study affirmed the necessity for building code amendment and the support for free amended building code documents to the public and other building standards. The study concludes with strong support to the use of intensive research and learning gained from disasters in building code amendment in New Zealand. Implementing the code users opinions encourages disaster resilience through effective application of the building code requirements in design and construction.Originality/valueThe contribution from this study offered a unique insight into the perspectives of building code users on building code amendment in New Zealand and ways of incorporating the findings in the building code later updates to improve disaster resilience in the built environment.

Investigating the Impact of Integration the Saudi Code of Energy Conservation with the Solar PV Systems in Residential Buildings

The demand for air conditioning is increasing day by day in the world’s hot and humid climate areas. Energy conservation in buildings can play a vital role in meeting this high cooling demand. This paper attempts to consider the impacts of energy efficiency and renewable energy measures on the energy demand of Saudi Arabia’s residential buildings. The energy analysis and economic feasibility analysis of thermal insulations are performed in this paper by investigating the effect of residential buildings’ thermal insulations on the economic feasibility of grid-connected photovoltaic systems. This was the combined effort of building owners and government, and buildings were examined if a photovoltaic system and thermal insulation were used. The study was conducted in the three climate zones in Saudi Arabia. The results showed that the building base case’s annual electrical energy consumption in Riyadh city was 67,095 kWh, Hail 57,373 kWh, and Abha 26,799 kWh. For the basic case-building in Riyadh, 69% of the total electrical energy was used for cooling and heating. Applying the Saudi Building Code requirement for Riyadh will provide only 18% of the total energy used for cooling and heating. RETScreen 6.1 software was used to design a photovoltaic system; the analysis was done using technical and economic indicators. The annual yield factor for Riyadh, Hail, and Abha was 1649 kWh/kWp/year, 1711 kWh/kWp/year, and 1765 kWh/kWp/year, respectively. The capacity factors for Riyadh, Hail, and Abha were 18.8%, 19.5%, and 20.1%, respectively. The Unified photovoltaic Levelized energy costs were 0.031, 0.030, and 0.029 $/kWh for Riyadh, Hail, and Abha, respectively. Finally, the Net Present Value and greenhouse gas emissions reduction have been estimated.

Technical and technological aspects of ensuring seismic stability during the construction of buildings and structures

The aim of the work is to consider the basic technical and technological aspects of ensuring the seismic resistance during the construction of buildings and structures, to study and analyze the existing technologies of earthquake-resistant construction, to identify their advantages and disadvantages, and the possibility of using them in mass construction. In addition, the analysis of the requirements of Building Codes of the Russian Federation for earthquake-resistant construction was carried out. This study presents the options for seismic isolation used in the world practice of earthquake-resistant construction. On the basis of the conducted studies, the conclusions about the effectiveness of seismic isolation methods, as well as the possibilities of achieving economic efficiency in the construction of earthquake-resistant buildings have been drawn. The paper gives recommendations on the earthquake-resistant construction technologies’ dissemination in Russia and the development of a regulatory framework in this area of construction.

Rao-3 algorithm for the weight optimization of reinforced concrete cantilever retaining wall

The paper represents an optimization algorithm for reinforced concrete retaining wall design. The proposed method, called Rao-3 optimization algorithm, is a recently developed algorithm. The total weight of the steel and concrete, which are used for constructing the retaining wall, were chosen as the objective function. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Rankine\'s theory for lateral earth pressure were considered for structural and geotechnical design, respectively. Number of the design variables are 12. Eight of those express the geometrical dimensions of the wall and four of those express the steel reinforcement of the wall. The safety against overturning, sliding and bearing capacity failure were regarded as the geotechnical constraints. The safety against bending and shear failure, minimum and maximum areas of reinforcement, development lengths of steel reinforcement were regarded as structural constraints. The performance of proposed algorithm was evaluated with two design examples.

Optimization of selection of eccentrically compressed continuous steel columns according to the criterion of minimizing steel consumption using computer programs

The article presents the results of a theoretical study devoted to improving the selection of the cross-sectional dimensions of an eccentrically compressed steel column in the form of a welded symmetric I-beam based on ensuring general and local stability while meeting the requirements of building codes and minimizing steel consumption. The analysis of the standard conditions for the stability of the column showed that it is advisable to take the width and thickness of the shelves as unknown cross-sectional dimensions. It is assumed that the dimensions of the wall are known and are determined during the layout of the building as a whole. The possibility of designing a column with an unstable wall is considered. The conditions of local and general stability in two main planes are considered as functional dependences of the shelve thickness on its width, given implicitly. It is shown that the graphs of such implicit functions on the coordinate plane limit certain areas in which the corresponding condition of general or local stability is ensured. It is proposed to solve the problem using a computer program in the MathCAD environment, since obtaining analytical formulas that would explicitly express a function through an argument is associated with significant mathematical difficulties. The method has been developed for establishing a correspondence between the numerical values of the thickness and width of the shelves by using the tools of the MathCAD environment. Based on the analysis of the constructed graphs of the functional dependences of the shelve thickness on its width, a method for optimizing the cross section of the column was developed according to the criterion of minimum steel costs. This technique is substantiated by a theoretical analysis of the obtained dependencies, which was aimed at proving the effectiveness of the proposed solution to the problem of selecting a rational column cross-section.

Axial load limit considerations for 14 in. square prestressed concrete piles

The 2018 International Building Code and American Concrete Institute Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-19) and Commentary (ACI 318R-19) have adopted axial load limits that prohibit the use of some 14 in. (350 mm) square prestressed concrete piles in areas of moderate to high seismicity. This paper presents the results of a study that examined the development of these axial load limits, their appropriateness as an attempt to ensure reliable seismic performance, and the expected seismic performance of commonly used 14 in. (350 mm) square prestressed concrete piles when the axial load limit is increased to levels commonly used in seismic design practice. Results of the study suggest that the axial load limits established by previous researchers are overly conservative and do not ensure reliable seismic performance. This paper recommends that reduced nominal moment strength be used in lieu of axial load limits for consistency with codified approaches already used in the United States and to help ensure reliable seismic performance when appropriate.

Structural integrity of precast concrete modular construction

The American Concrete Institute’s (ACI’s) Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-19) and Commentary (ACI 318R-19) contains structural integrity provisions for precast concrete panel buildings but does not address the structural integrity of precast concrete modules. ACI 318 requires spaced steel ties in all directions to tie the precast concrete panel elements together. These criteria are impractical for precast concrete modules due to the construction methods and the overall rigidity of each module. Precast concrete modules are inherently stable, even when subjected to General Services Administration criteria for partial removal of structural walls or corners, which require that if a portion of a wall or an entire module is removed, the remaining portions must have sufficient capacity to carry the resulting gravity loads. This paper examines the stress increases due to partial wall removal and the possibility of total module removal. It discusses strength reserves, provides recommendations for future editions of ACI 318 and the PCI Design Handbook: Precast and Prestressed Concrete, and presents conceptual connections that provide the continuity and ductility needed to maintain structural integrity following total module removal.

Data Set for Cyclic Tests of Eleven Lightly Reinforced Concrete Walls

A series of reinforced concrete wall tests were conducted at the University of Auckland to address the lack of experimental data on flexure-dominant lightly reinforced concrete walls that are common in multistorey buildings in regions of low or moderate seismicity. The experimental program comprised 11 rectangular reinforced concrete walls that were subjected to pseudo-static cyclic loading. The tests were used to investigate minimum vertical reinforcement provisions for reinforced concrete walls and formed the basis for revisions to the New Zealand Concrete Structures Standard NZS 3101 and the US Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete ACI 318. The recorded documentation and data collected throughout the test program have provided a high-quality dataset that is a valuable resource to researchers investigating the seismic behavior of reinforced concrete walls. The dataset is published and publicly available on DesignSafe-CI with the project number PRJ-1648. The methodology of the data collection is described, and a road map for navigating the dataset is presented to support future use of the archived dataset.

Thermal evaluation of a highly insulated steel stud wall with vacuum insulation panels using a guarded hot box apparatus

This paper presents the results of a Guarded Hot Box (GHB) experiment on a wall assembly made up of both steel stud framing and an external insulating assembly which incorporates vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) for which knowledge of the composition of the VIP barrier foil is not readily available. The purpose of the tests is to provide an experiment result for thermal resistance of a wall assembly containing several sources of thermal bridging, including those due to the barrier foil at the edge of and joint material between the VIPs and the condensation potential on the interior surface due to the steel studs. The steady-state GHB experiments were completed in accordance with ASTM C1363 for an interior air temperature of 20.9°C and an exterior air temperature of −34.9°C; this resulted in a thermal resistance for the wall assembly of 6.8 ± 0.8 m2 K/W. Surface temperature measurements on a VIP in the wall assembly indicated that increased levels of heat transfer were occurring at the edges of the VIPs as compared to the center of the panel confirming thermal bridges were present at the panel edge. Measurement of the temperature on the interior surface of the sheathing board around the steel stud indicated that the external insulation effectively minimized the risk of condensation due to the steel studs. Determining the thermal resistance and condensation risk for a wall assembly which contains VIPs for which knowledge of the barrier film is not readily available demonstrates the potential for use of such a wall assembly according to energy and building code requirements. The wall assembly and test details can also be used to compare industry standard calculation methods and detailed 2D and 3D simulations to the GHB test result. The comparison can be used to inform on the validity of using calculations and simulation methods in lieu of testing for energy and building code compliance. The comparison of calculations and simulations is not the scope of the work presented in this paper and will be explored in future publications.

Parking places built-into the lower ground floors of public buildings and structures. Architectural-planning and functional-technological requirements

The rapid processes of global motorization, which Ukraine has not avoided, have a growing impact on various aspects of modern society, on the formation of a new urban environment and transport system. At the same time, to create favorable conditions for Ukraine's integration into the EU needs to address infrastructural issues: the systematic organization of facilities for storing cars in general in cities with the provision of their architecture- accessibility, versatility, economy, energy efficiency and more. First of all, this applies to the largest cities, where about 45% of the total urban population of the state live. An acute urban and transport problem is the problem associated with the allocation of areas for transport facilities: parking lots (garages), gas stations, service stations and other car service facilities. In the absence of free space, the cost of urban land increases. Based on this, there is an urgent need to develop modern methods and techniques that allow more efficient use of land resources. One of the possible methods of solving the problem of organizing parking lots is to build them into the lower floors of public buildings for various purposes. The generalization of foreign and domestic design and construction practices made it possible to determine that one of the first examples of built-in parking lots (garages) are two 60-storey residential and office centers in Chicago (USA) on the shores of Lake Michigan, called Marina City (1964). The construction of these centers gave impetus to the architectural and planning organization of buildings and structures for the rational solution of parking in the lower above-ground floors of residential buildings and public buildings and structures. The article summarizes foreign and domestic practice of designing and building such parking lots. It is determined that with a high density of buildings in Ukrainian cities, the method of embedding in the lower floors of public buildings and structures is developing. This reception will be in demand especially in the transition of vehicles to electric vehicles. At the same time, the analysis of domestic regulations on the placement of parking lots revealed the absence of provisions on the possibility of embedding them in the lower above-ground floors of public buildings and structures. However, in the CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) countries and in the developed countries of the world, such provisions exist, which helps to increase the level of comfort of public services and allows rational and intensive use of the city. Based on the results of research and suggestions, it should be noted that the practice of design and construc- tion reveals the possibility of applying the existing requirements of current state building codes of Ukraine for underground garages, which should be extended and for car parks (garages) located on the lower above-ground floors of other buildings, in particular public buildings. This requires changes and additions to the current urban planning, typological and fire regulations, which are planned to be developed on the basis of this study.

Insulating Bricks Filled with Cellulose Fibers, Packed in Recycled Plastic and Covered with Mortar Coating

This article presents a new composite brick made of cellulose fibers packed in a thin, hermetically sealed plastic block made of a set of recycled PET bottles, and coated with a layer of mortar. This brick is made to provide good thermal and acoustic insulation in building walls and possibly in floor slabs. The properties of cellulose fibers, mortar, and PET plastic are presented as well as the manufacturing process used to produce the brick. The physical properties of the proposed brick have been experimentally measured through laboratory tests and they have been numerically evaluated using specific formulae or software simulation. These properties include density, compressive strength, flexural strength, thermal conductivity and sound reduction index. Two thicknesses for the brick are considered in this study: a medium one of 12.5 cm and a large one of 24 cm. Each thickness has allowed obtaining specific properties that have been assessed and compared with other bricks cited in the references. The results of the proposed medium-thickness brick show good resistance to compression, with a more ductile failure mode, as well as a low thermal conductivity and a fair predicted noise reduction index, found using the INSUL 9.0 simulation. The estimated results of the large thickness brick predict a lower yet good compressive strength, with improved insulating properties; in particular a very low thermal conductivity and a good noise reduction index. The results of both the thicknesses have been also compared to the requirements of thermal and acoustic building codes used in many countries. There are several advantages of this brick including cost optimization, sustainment of the environment, and ease of assembly in construction. These advantages have also been discussed to prove their interesting use in the construction of buildings as well as their compliance with the recommendations of thermal and acoustic building codes.

Optimizing the Design of Tall Buildings Using the Principle of Virtual Work: The Effect of Semi Rigid Connections

The Virtual Work Optimization Method (VWOM) is used to optimize tall buildings with semi rigid connections. The VWOM is an automated method that minimizes the mass of a structure with a given geometry, deflection criteria and load cases, while adhering to building code requirements. Members are selected from a user defined database to meet strength and stiffness criteria. The rotational stiffness of connections can be specified and varied, from rigid to pinned. The method is explained using an example of a two storey one bay steel frame with six members. Four case studies are presented: (i) a six storey two bay frame, (ii) a ten storey one bay steel building, (iii) a fifteen storey three bay steel frame and (iv) a twenty four storey three bay building. The examples are compared to results found in the literature. Structures were optimized for a range of connection rotational stiffnesses. The VWOM obtained results up to 44.6% lighter than published work. Optimized results showed that in most cases the semi rigid connection produced the same results as the rigid connections. This is due to the rapid plateauing of the optimized mass as the connection stiffness increases. Thus, the typical definition of semi rigid and rigid rotational stiffnesses (for example Eurocode 3) are both found on this plateau. If some members are lightly loaded, broad semi rigid and rigid bands can be produced. The effect in these cases is that structures with rigid connections are lighter than those with semi rigid connections as no compensation in the member stiffness is required to meet deflection criteria.

Mechanical properties of steel reinforcing bars for concrete structures in central Colombia

Reinforcing steel imported into Colombia from various countries, which does not meet the requirements of local building codes, hinders the compliance with the life safety limit state intended by the local building code. The results of a statistical analysis of the tensile mechanical properties that characterize the stress-strain curves of steel bars marketed in Bogotá are presented and discussed. The experimental program was planned to provide statistics of the main mechanical properties of grade 60 steel bars with bar diameter ranging from 9.5 mm to 25.4 mm subjected to monotonic tension loading. The study comprises 85 monotonic tensile tests and 85 bending tests, including five specimens per diameter for each of three manufacturing companies evaluated. The measured results are compared with those reported by different studies conducted previously in Colombia, Mexico, Canada and the US. Characteristic graphical stress-strain curves are proposed for each diameter studied. These curves, along with the statistics reported for each bar diameter can be used for future analytical studies on the structural performance and reliability of reinforced concrete structures in central Colombia.