Theory Of Syntax Research Articles

Sequence Specific Motor Performance Gains after Memory Consolidation in Children and Adolescents

Memory consolidation for a trained sequence of finger opposition movements, in 9- and 12-year-old children, was recently found to be significantly less susceptible to interference by a subsequent training experience, compared to that of 17-year-olds. It was suggested that, in children, the experience of training on any sequence of finger movements may affect the performance of the sequence elements, component movements, rather than the sequence as a unit; the latter has been implicated in the learning of the task by adults. This hypothesis implied a possible childhood advantage in the ability to transfer the gains from a trained to the reversed, untrained, sequence of movements. Here we report the results of transfer tests undertaken to test this proposal in 9-, 12-, and 17-year-olds after training in the finger-to-thumb opposition sequence (FOS) learning task. Our results show that the performance gains in the trained sequence partially transferred from the left, trained hand, to the untrained hand at 48-hours after a single training session in the three age-groups tested. However, there was very little transfer of the gains from the trained to the untrained, reversed, sequence performed by either hand. The results indicate sequence specific post-training gains in FOS performance, as opposed to a general improvement in performance of the individual, component, movements that comprised both the trained and untrained sequences. These results do not support the proposal that the reduced susceptibility to interference, in children before adolescence, reflects a difference in movement syntax representation after training.

The core of grammar

Categorial grammar, developed by Ajdukiewicz, was the first formal account of the general syntax of language. It was based on profound insights of Frege and Husserl as to the nature of sense and reference of linguistic expressions. Dichotomies of operator versus argument, basic category versus functor category, and names versus sentences alongside with parallelisms such as syntax-semantics are counted as essential. Further development of categorial grammar was influenced by comparisons with generative grammar and by adopting Chomsky's criterion of empirical adequacy as the main tool for assessing theories of grammar. That lead to a substantial formal enrichment and “flexibilization” of categorial grammar on the one hand, but on the other hand it resulted in abandoning original central ideas. Eventually, categorial grammar ceased to be a uniform theory and became leveled with countless hybrid theories stemming from considerations about particular linguistic phenomena, which seriously undermined the task of understanding syntax. In this paper, I propose to return to original rudiments in search for a cure for the said dispersion of explanatory power. The theory of syntax should be divided into a one simple, categorial core of grammar, in Ajdukiewicz' style, and multiple interfaces joining the core with idiosyncrasies of particular languages, to be developed by linguists.

Natural Syntax of English: transitivity

The framework of this paper is Natural Syntax initiated by the author in the tradition of (morphological) naturalness as established by Wolfgang U. Dressler and Willi Mayerthaler. Natural Syntax is a pseudodeductive linguistic theory, and this is its most recent version. The naturalness judgements are couched in naturalness scales, which follow from the basic parameters (or axioms) listed at the beginning of the paper. The predictions of the theory are calculated in what are known as deductions, the chief components of each being a pair of naturalness scales and the rules governing the alignment of corresponding naturalness values. Parallel and chiastic alignment is distinguished and related to Henning Andersen's early work on markedness. The basic idea is to illustrate how a (pseudo)deductive theory of syntax performs if it insists on avoiding abstract solutions, and in particular on excluding any generative component. Natural Syntax is exemplified here with selected English cases of transitivity. Special attention is given to relative-frequency phenomena.

Spatial Accessibility of Road Network in Wuhan Metropolitan Area Based on Spatial Syntax

Based on space syntax theory, the spatial accessibility of the road network in Wuhan Metropolitan Area has been quantitatively analyzed by building a series of accessibility variables. Topologic connectivity in the accessible rings appears to be broken; traffic axis network is in spatial structure of hub-and-spoke and fishbone-like. Meanwhile, the differences in classified road network have led to inefficiency of its network servo and its ever-worsening capability to respond to traffic jams. Besides, two band-like integrated cores of which one is east to west along the Yangtze River and the other is north to south along Beijing to Guangzhou Railway, have become the first level traffic axis in the whole network, which is responsible for the connectivity of the entire metropolitan area network. This consequently has strengthened the dominant position of Wuhan which is located on the bands’ crossing. In short, the spatial accessibility of that classified space morphology, the urban system, the transport infrastructure as well as the social and economic development of Wuhan Metropolitan Area are highly interrelated to each other, especially to the high level highway network featured by freeways, the development level of which is well in line with that of road network accessibility.

The Urban Context in Flux: Articulating Urban Scales through the Study of Socio-spatial Interfaces

This paper discusses continuing research framed within a counterbalance between the fields of architecture and urban planning whilst taking into consideration the systematic relationships between spatial patterns and their referring social schemes. The main question addressed, is whether a better understanding of spatial boundaries will contribute—both theoretically and in practice—to conceiving better assimilated planning solutions and interventions into existing urban grids. Boundaries are considered here as structural agents in the global-local-unit interdependence, as the intermediary spatial formations where socio-spatial scales (domestic interior, urban neighbourhood, urban district, city) overlap and potentially interact. It is suggested that boundaries control the flow of social users in spatial patterns, being at the same time potential interfaces at different scales of activity where the individual is (successively or abruptly) transformed from inhabitant, to commuter and to citizen. It is further proposed that boundaries serve to control both disruptions in the large-scale urban grid, and disturbances at the local scale. The research topic is methodologically approached through the study of historic evolution of Athenian housing, as manifested in relation to city’s urban grid transformations. The methodological approach involves correlating architectural and morphological aspects with syntactic and analytical tools of Space Syntax Theory.

Inside Herod’s Courts: Social Relations and Royal Ideology in the Herodian Palaces

Abstract The article examines the social relations in Herod’s royal courts according to the archaeological discoveries in the Herodian palaces of Jericho, Masada, and Caesarea and what kind of political self-image is represented by these palaces. Space Syntax Theory (Access Analysis) is used to examine the spatial plan of these five palaces. Until 15 B.C.E. Herod was interested in maintaining an open court, being easily approachable to many visitors. It therefore seems that Nicolaus and Josephus exaggerated in their depiction of Herod’s suspicious and antisocial behavior. In the last decade of his reign Herod’s palaces reflect discreteness and the division into segregated sections. Access to the king became more remote. Social interaction became more hierarchical, stressing the king’s privacy and his control over his visitors with low interaction potential. The archaeological evidence shows that Herod transformed his court structure and royal posture several years before Josephus’ report of the emergence of his grave suspicions of Alexander and Aristobulus. His social behavior changed drastically sometime before 15 B.C.E., that is, before his paranoia became worse.

The imperative in natural syntax

The framework of this paper is Natural Syntax initiated by the author in the tradition of (morphological) naturalness as established by Wolfgang U. Dressler and Willi Mayerthaler. Natural Syntax is a pseudo-deductive linguistic theory, and this is its most recent version. The naturalness judgements are couched in naturalness scales, which follow from the basic parameters (or "axioms") listed at the beginning of the paper. The predictions of the theory are calculated in what are known as deductions, the chief components of each being a pair of naturalness scales and the rules governing the alignment of corresponding naturalness values. Parallel and chiastic alignment is distinguished and related to Henning Andersen's early work on markedness. The basic idea is to illustrate how a (pseudo)deductive theory of syntax performs if it insists on avoiding abstract solutions, and in particular on excluding any generative component. In this paper the framework of Natural Syntax is applied mostly outside its original domain; namely, to the morphological behaviour of the imperative in various languages.

Urban Transformation Process of Soho from 1889 to 2004 - A Discussion of the Form and Function Relationship

Due to the advance of computer science, we now have more powerful tools to digitize and analyze the complex system of urban form, which was difficult for describing and exploring previously. Space syntax theory and method is one of these tools which can help to clarify the social logic of space quantitatively. By this tool, this study examined the urban transformation process of the London area of Soho in the last 100 years, aiming at articulating the intriguing form and function relationship. This study proposed that although the spatial change and social change are in different speed, their changing process still intertwined and interacted with each other.

Relabeling Heads: A Unified Account for Relativization Structures

A tenet of any version of phrase structure theory is that a lexical item can transmit its label when merged with another category. We assume that if it is internally merged, a lexical item can turn a clause into a nominal phrase. If the relabeling lexical item is a wh-word, a free relative results; if it is an N, a full relative results; if it is a non-wh D, a pseudorelative results. It follows that the head of a relative construction cannot be more complex than a lexical item. We show massive evidence that when it is otherwise (e.g., the book about Obama that you bought), the modifier is late-merged after the noun has moved and relabeled the structure.

Accessibility Evaluation of Guangzhou Subway Network Based on Space Syntax Model and GIS

Based on the current condition of Guangzhou subway network, the authors used GIS methods and extended the space syntax theory to analyze the accessibility of the subway network, and compared with actual passenger flow. The results show: 1)Space syntax is practicable to measure the accessibility of subway system; 2)Among all sections by division, the accessibility of Tiyuxilu-Chen Clan Academy is the highest, the accessibility of Yantang-Panyu Square is the second highest, while the accessibilities of Jiaokou–Xicun and Dongchong–Jinzhou are the lowest, the accessibility of Xilang -Chen Clan Academy is the second lowest; 3)The accessibility level of subway and actual passenger flow have a positive correlation, the higher the accessibility, the larger the passenger flow; 4)As a whole, line 1 has the highest accessibility and the largest passenger flow, followed closely by line 3. Their departure frequency and number of carriages should be properly increased to relieve passenger flow pressure. Line 4 has relatively low accessibility and less passenger flow, so it should appropriately decrease train frequency or extend departure interval to reduce operating cost at present. Certainly, space syntax inevitably has its limitations, but after proper extension, the space syntax method can be used to instruct traffic reconstructing and urban planning etc.

공간구문론을 이용한 근린공원 시각적 접근기회 분석- 청주시를 중심으로 -

This study analyzes the visual access opportunities of neighborhood park users using the Space Syntax theory. In order to achieve this goal, 27 neighborhood parks were selected and 27 axial maps drawn according to the spatial configuration of the sites. Based on the axial map data, this study has calculated some specific space syntax indices, including Connectivity, Integration, and Intelligibility using the Axwoman ver 3.0 based on the Arcview 3.2 application. The value of the representative indices were used to examine visual access opportunities presented by the parks. This study was conducted in two aspects: one focusing on the entire space and another focusing on only the main entrance of the parks. The former used integration and intelligibility values and the latter used connectivity and integration values to evaluate the visual access opportunities of the sites. As a result, this study found that some parks, including Joongang, Balsan, and Sangdang, have high visual access opportunities in terms of the spatial configuration surrounding the park, which shows an integration value higher than 2, and also having intelligibility values higher than 0.7. This is the result of the grid land use pattern surrounding the parks and the straight roads that are closely linked to the main entrances of the parks. It is expected that this methodology and results will be used for locating neighborhood parks during the urban planning stage as providing reasonable evidence.

Developing a topological information extraction model for space syntax analysis

Computer-aided design (CAD) systems have evolved into more intelligent systems, employing building information modeling (BIM) to manage semantic building information including the entities of building components and spaces. Based on the technological advancement, there have been some researches for conducting spatial analysis in CAD or simulation systems. However, in the previous works, the task to subdivide a concave space into convex spaces has been carried out manually, which caused inefficiency of time and cost. Therefore, this study has intended to develop a topological information extraction model (TIEM) to extract topological information, recognize geometric and topological features of spaces, and select convex spaces best fit for Space Syntax analysis in an automatic manner. To reach this goal, this study developed algorithms to extract essential information from semantic building information including building components and spaces produced in the form of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), and employed graph theory and binary spatial partitioning (BSP) tree to recognize spaces and decompose a concave space into optimal convex spaces. As a result, this study has successfully decomposed a concave space into convex spaces automatically, has drawn a j-graph with the divided convex unit spaces, and has measured spatial configurations based on Space Syntax theory indentifying social and spatial properties of a built environment. These results indicate that the TIEM will serve as useful means to help architects to find an appropriate purpose of each space for sustainable built environment on the basis of the spatial and social relationships in buildings or urban systems.

The Locally Nameless Representation

This paper provides an introduction to the locally nameless approach to the representation of syntax with variable binding, focusing in particular on the use of this technique in formal proofs. First, we explain the benefits of representing bound variables with de Bruijn indices while retaining names for free variables. Then, we explain how to describe and manipulate syntax in that form, and show how to define and reason about judgments on locally nameless terms.

A study on transformation of urban layout patterns through analysis of spatial relationships with urban street configurations

Spatial structures of large cities are typically complex and dynamic as a result of constant changes to their physical and socioeconomic characteristics. Studying both spatial and temporal forms is important for understanding their structures, as well as forecasting possible future changes in city growth patterns. In this study, we analyze structural changes of Seoul, the capital city of Korea, using physical and socioeconomic factors such as street structure, land use and population. We used 25 administrative sub-regions that have composed Seoul City for 30 years from the 1960s to the 1990s, with the analysis broken down into 10-year increments. We used the space syntax theory for the analysis of the changing structure of Seoul's street pattern in smaller resolution than existing methods that have focused on issues of accessibility based on zone levels. First, we analyze the attribute values of space syntax, population density and land uses changed in each administrative area of Seoul in each time period. Next, we examine the relationship between street networks and spatial patterns and evaluate whether development patterns are positive or not. Finally, we present the differences of spatial structures between planned areas and naturally grown areas.

Computational algorithms to evaluate design solutions using Space Syntax

In the past, conventional computer-aided architectural design (CAAD) systems could not manage semantic information on building components and spaces but only graphical and geometric information. However, since the advent of Building Information Modeling (BIM), which has been used for managing semantic building information, determining spatial relationships as well as quantities and properties of building components in CAAD systems has become easier. It is necessary to make current CAAD systems capable of performing spatial analysis functions using BIM because they can easily recognize building components and spaces. Accordingly, this study aims to develop the computational algorithms to evaluate design solutions using Space Syntax during the process of computer-aided architectural designing. To extract topological information from design solutions, this study proposes algorithms to recognize building information produced in the form of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC), deduce the necessary topological information, and store the information in the form of matrices. The Space Syntax theory is employed to evaluate the solutions based on social properties of spaces in a building and examine the potential for adding a spatial analysis function into CAAD applications. The developed algorithms calculate the integration value for each space from spatial connectivity based on J-graphs. To validate the proposed algorithms, a program named J-Studio for Architectural Planning (J-SAP) was developed to evaluate design solutions easily and quickly. The validation results are as follows: (1) the topological information extracted from building information was decoded into a dimensionless representation and legible J-graph, (2) mathematical analyses for choosing a better design solution during computer-aided architectural designing were presented, and (3) the examination of the privacy level of each space in a building through Space Syntax analysis was discussed. Thus, this study demonstrates the possibility of determining the social properties and accessibility of spaces during the process of computer-aided architectural designing to meet client requirements by extracting topological information from building information model and performing Space Syntax analysis for evaluating alternatives using the information.

The Effect of Conditional Probability of Chord Progression on Brain Response: An MEG Study

BackgroundRecent electrophysiological and neuroimaging studies have explored how and where musical syntax in Western music is processed in the human brain. An inappropriate chord progression elicits an event-related potential (ERP) component called an early right anterior negativity (ERAN) or simply an early anterior negativity (EAN) in an early stage of processing the musical syntax. Though the possible underlying mechanism of the EAN is assumed to be probabilistic learning, the effect of the probability of chord progressions on the EAN response has not been previously explored explicitly.Methodology/Principal FindingsIn the present study, the empirical conditional probabilities in a Western music corpus were employed as an approximation of the frequencies in previous exposure of participants. Three types of chord progression were presented to musicians and non-musicians in order to examine the correlation between the probability of chord progression and the neuromagnetic response using magnetoencephalography (MEG). Chord progressions were found to elicit early responses in a negatively correlating fashion with the conditional probability. Observed EANm (as a magnetic counterpart of the EAN component) responses were consistent with the previously reported EAN responses in terms of latency and location. The effect of conditional probability interacted with the effect of musical training. In addition, the neural response also correlated with the behavioral measures in the non-musicians.Conclusions/SignificanceOur study is the first to reveal the correlation between the probability of chord progression and the corresponding neuromagnetic response. The current results suggest that the physiological response is a reflection of the probabilistic representations of the musical syntax. Moreover, the results indicate that the probabilistic representation is related to the musical training as well as the sensitivity of an individual.

Spatial analysis of a post-socialist city: Case of Tirana-Albania

This study proposes an analysis model to see how urban spatial configuration in case of post-socialist Tirana City transformed over time. The analysis of city network road and comercial facilities distribution of Tirana City helps us to examine urban land use variation and the urban spatial structure. The study also reviews urban spatial structure model of the city as well. The main principles of space syntax theory are introduced as a method which measures the relations of the pattern in spatial system. The city structure is analysed by developing the main spatial patterns. The new potential areas of the city industrial zones, residental areas and new transport systems are analyzed through space syntax method. As a conclusion, space syntax analysis provide an important contribution to the analysis of urban structures and give the future design parameters for the the transforming city. Key words: Space syntax, urban transformation, post-socialist city.

Ontology agent for ensuring semantic interoperability among agents and semantic web

The semantic languages like Ontology Web Language, Web Services Modeling Language and Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agent Semantic Language, differ in syntax and semantic representation, result in mismatches that required mapping and interoperability for cross service utilisation among these semantic languages. In this paper, we compiled our work that is a middleware technique to make possible translation among heterogeneous contents on the bases of similar objectives that FIPA Ontology Service Specification provides to agent community. The paper addresses and motivates the relevant topic of achieving semantic interoperability among software agents and semantic web through the development of agent based middleware architecture. Semantic description languages used in our architecture are FIPA SL, W3C's OWL and WSML, in order to dynamically obtain the semantic interoperability in a heterogeneous and distributed environment. The results are evaluated for ontology mappings with traditional parsing technique and SPARQL query based approach.

Does the Genitive Operate in the Hungarian Case System?: II. The Ø-/nak-/nek-Genitive

Does the Genitive Operate in the Hungarian Case System?: II. The Ø-/nak-/nek-GenitiveThe present paper should be regarded as a direct continuation of the articleDoes the Genitive Operate in the Hungarian Case System? I. The é-Genitive. The core of the adopted approach represents the standpoint that present-day Hungarian cannot be conceived as a language exempt from any case syncretism. The possibility of distinguishing different case categories relevant for this language by referring only to the form of their markers (endings) is illusory. What is more, it creates a space where some phenomena remain imperceptible. The postulated attributive genitive category can be distinguished not only on the basis of its syntactic properties. The manifestations of this case also differ substantially from the manifestations of other recognized cases. It is difficult to regard the attributive genitive in Hungarian as syncretic with nominative or dative in the sense known in general linguistics, because the appropriate markers turn out to be insufficient in semifying (marking grammatically) the required meaning. They must be complemented by other markers attached to the head of the attributive syntagm (a diák/Økönyv/e, a diák/naka könyv/e‘the student's book’). The properties of the distribution of the Hungarian attributive genitive with its two main manifestations (the endingless one:a diák könyve, and with ending:a diáknak a könyve) can be regarded as a contribution to the general theory of syntax; the genitive attributes of different grades are marked there substantially (a diák/Ø(III) könyv/e(II) cím/é/nek(I) a fordítás/a‘the translation of the title (I) of the book (II) of the student (III)’) and not only by their linear order as in many Indo-European and Finno-Ugric languages. When the word fulfilling the attributive function belongs to the category of personal pronoun, concord can be identified between it and its head in person and number (azénkönyv/em‘my book, the book of mine’). The factual elision of personal pronouns resulting from their redundancy in this context gives no grounds to state that morphemes like -emina könyv/emdo not fulfil any syntagmatic function. Such an utterance constitutes a discrepancy with the analogous behaviour of personal pronouns in relation to finite verbal forms (olvas/ok‘I read’ →olvas/ok‘(I) read’) where no-one speaks of the irrelevancy of the personal endings in reference to their syntagmatic function. The necessity of distinguishing of socalled "marks" (here "possessor marks") is being questioned here; those morphemes are not deprived of fulfilling the syntagmatic function ascribed traditionally to the case endings in the case of nominal flexion. They are regarded here as parts of the discontinuative (genitive) case markers. The specific features of the Hungarian genitive include its sharp division into two subcategories: (i) theé-genitive and (ii) theØ-/nak-/nek-genitive. Their complementary distribution, together with other discussed properties, additionally corroborates the relevance of distinguishing for them a common upper morphosyntactic category called the genitive case. And finally, Hungarian turns out to be a language where the accumulation of multiple case meanings, all being manifested substantially within the boundaries of one word, can be attested (a diák/om/é/é/t‘the one of the one of my student’).

Analyzing and Integrating Dependency Parsers

There has been a rapid increase in the volume of research on data-driven dependency parsers in the past five years. This increase has been driven by the availability of treebanks in a wide variety of languages—due in large part to the CoNLL shared tasks—as well as the straightforward mechanisms by which dependency theories of syntax can encode complex phenomena in free word order languages. In this article, our aim is to take a step back and analyze the progress that has been made through an analysis of the two predominant paradigms for data-driven dependency parsing, which are often called graph-based and transition-based dependency parsing. Our analysis covers both theoretical and empirical aspects and sheds light on the kinds of errors each type of parser makes and how they relate to theoretical expectations. Using these observations, we present an integrated system based on a stacking learning framework and show that such a system can learn to overcome the shortcomings of each non-integrated system.