Diversity Relationships Research Articles

Intracellular spatial transcriptomic analysis toolkit (InSTAnT)

Imaging-based spatial transcriptomics technologies such as Multiplexed error-robust fluorescence in situ hybridization (MERFISH) can capture cellular processes in unparalleled detail. However, rigorous and robust analytical tools are needed to unlock their full potential for discovering subcellular biological patterns. We present Intracellular Spatial Transcriptomic Analysis Toolkit (InSTAnT), a computational toolkit for extracting molecular relationships from spatial transcriptomics data at single molecule resolution. InSTAnT employs specialized statistical tests and algorithms to detect gene pairs and modules exhibiting intriguing patterns of co-localization, both within individual cells and across the cellular landscape. We showcase the toolkit on five different datasets representing two different cell lines, two brain structures, two species, and three different technologies. We perform rigorous statistical assessment of discovered co-localization patterns, find supporting evidence from databases and RNA interactions, and identify associated subcellular domains. We uncover several cell type and region-specific gene co-localizations within the brain. Intra-cellular spatial patterns discovered by InSTAnT mirror diverse molecular relationships, including RNA interactions and shared sub-cellular localization or function, providing a rich compendium of testable hypotheses regarding molecular functions.

Dynamic category-sensitive hypergraph inferring and homo-heterogeneous neighbor feature learning for drug-related microbe prediction.

The microbes in human body play a crucial role in influencing the functions of drugs, as they can regulate the activities and toxicities of drugs. Most recent methods for predicting drug-microbe associations are based on graph learning. However, the relationships among multiple drugs and microbes are complex, diverse, and heterogeneous. Existing methods often fail to fully model the relationships. In addition, the attributes of drug-microbe pairs exhibit long-distance spatial correlations, which previous methods have not integrated effectively. We propose a new prediction method named DHDMP which is designed to encode the relationships among multiple drugs and microbes and integrate the attributes of various neighbor nodes along with the pairwise long-distance correlations. First, we construct a hypergraph with dynamic topology, where each hyperedge represents a specific relationship among multiple drug nodes and microbe nodes. Considering the heterogeneity of node attributes across different categories, we developed a node category-sensitive hypergraph convolution network to encode these diverse relationships. Second, we construct homogeneous graphs for drugs and microbes respectively, as well as drug-microbe heterogeneous graph, facilitating the integration of features from both homogeneous and heterogeneous neighbors of each target node. Third, we introduce a graph convolutional network with cross-graph feature propagation ability to transfer node features from homogeneous to heterogeneous graphs for enhanced neighbor feature representation learning. The propagation strategy aids in the deep fusion of features from both types of neighbors. Finally, we design spatial cross-attention to encode the attributes of drug-microbe pairs, revealing long-distance correlations among multiple pairwise attribute patches. The comprehensive comparison experiments showed our method outperformed state-of-the-art methods for drug-microbe association prediction. The ablation studies demonstrated the effectiveness of node category-sensitive hypergraph convolution network, graph convolutional network with cross-graph feature propagation, and spatial cross-attention. Case studies on three drugs further showed DHDMP's potential application in discovering the reliable candidate microbes for the interested drugs. Source codes and supplementary materials are available at https://github.com/pingxuan-hlju/DHDMP.

Developing Novel Microsatellite Markers for Kaempferia parviflora by Microsatellite Capture Sequencing (MiCAPs)

Kaempferia parviflora, a medicinal plant widely used in Southeast Asia, has been validated clinically for its diverse pharmaceutical applications. Despite extensive research in pharmacology, there is a notable lack of cytogenetic and genomic research, primarily due to limited genetic information. Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) is considered a robust class of molecular markers frequently used in biodiversity studies. In this study, we adopted Microsatellite Capture Sequencing (MiCAPs) to obtain SSR sequences for marker development. We identified 13,644 SSRs and developed and validated ten sets of SSR markers through capillary electrophoresis. The ten primer sets generated 27 alleles, with an average Polymorphism Information Content (PIC) of 0.36. Principle Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) distinguished two types of K. parviflora, consistent with classification by leaf margin color (red and green). A neighbor-joining dendrogram of seven Zingiberaceae species was constructed with the SSR-containing sequences. The 2-c value of K. parviflora is first reported here as 3.16 ± 0.03; the genome size is estimated at 3090.48 Mbp. The newly developed molecular markers are crucial for variety identification and the conservation of wild resources. Additionally, the cytogenetic and phylogenetic information provides valuable insights into the genetic diversity and evolutionary relationships.

Recognition of carrier-based aircraft flight deck operations based on dynamic graph

Accurate recognition of flight deck operations for carrier-based aircraft, based on operation trajectories, is critical for optimizing carrier-based aircraft performance. This recognition involves understanding short-term and long-term spatial collaborative relationships among support agents and positions from long spatial–temporal trajectories. While the existing methods excel at recognizing collaborative behaviors from short trajectories, they often struggle with long spatial–temporal trajectories. To address this challenge, this paper introduces a dynamic graph method to enhance flight deck operation recognition. First, spatial–temporal collaborative relationships are modeled as a dynamic graph. Second, a discretized and compressed method is proposed to assign values to the states of this dynamic graph. To extract features that represent diverse collaborative relationships among agents and account for the duration of these relationships, a biased random walk is then conducted. Subsequently, the Swin Transformer is employed to comprehend spatial–temporal collaborative relationships, and a fully connected layer is applied to deck operation recognition. Finally, to address the scarcity of real datasets, a simulation pipeline is introduced to generate deck operations in virtual flight deck scenarios. Experimental results on the simulation dataset demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed method.

Exploring Endophytic Fungi as Natural Antagonists against Fungal Pathogens of Food Crops.

The yield and quality of cultivated food crops are frequently compromised by the prevalent threat from fungal pathogens that can cause widespread damage in both the pre-harvest and post-harvest stages. This paper investigates the challenges posed by fungal pathogens to the sustainability and yield of essential food crops, leading to significant economic and food security repercussions. The paper critiques the long-standing reliance on synthetic fungicides, emphasizing the environmental and health concerns arising from their widespread and occasionally inappropriate use. In response, the paper explores the potential of biological control agents, specifically endophytic fungi in advancing sustainable agricultural practices. Through their diverse symbiotic relationships with host plants, these fungi exhibit strong antagonistic capabilities against phytopathogenic fungi by producing various bioactive compounds and promoting plant growth. The review elaborates on the direct and indirect mechanisms of endophytic antagonism, such as antibiosis, mycoparasitism, induction of host resistance, and competition for resources, which collectively contribute to inhibiting pathogenic fungal growth. This paper consolidates the crucial role of endophytic fungi, i.e., Acremonium, Alternaria, Arthrinium, Aspergillus, Botryosphaeria, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Cevidencealdinia, Epicoccum, Fusarium, Gliocladium, Muscodor, Nigrospora, Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Phomopsis, Pichia, Pochonia, Pythium, Ramichloridium, Rosellinia, Talaromyces, Trichoderma, Verticillium, Wickerhamomyces, and Xylaria, in biological control, supported by the evidence drawn from more than 200 research publications. The paper pays particular attention to Muscodor, Penicillium, and Trichoderma as prominent antagonists. It also emphasizes the need for future genetic-level research to enhance the application of endophytes in biocontrol strategies aiming to highlight the importance of endophytic fungi in facilitating the transition towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural systems.

Discrepancies between the Spatial Distribution of Cancer Incidence and Mortality as an Indicator of Unmet Needs in Cancer Prevention and/or Treatment in Hungary.

There is a rich body of literature on the distribution of cancer incidence and mortality in socioeconomically different world regions, but none of the studies has compared the spatial distribution of mortality and incidence to see if they are consistent with each other. All malignant neoplasms combined and cervical, colorectal, breast, pancreatic, lung, and oral cancers separately were studied in the Hungarian population aged 25-64 years for 2007-2018 at the municipality level by sex. In each case, the spatial distribution of incidence and mortality were compared with each other and with the level of deprivation using disease mapping, spatial regression, risk analysis, and spatial scan statistics. A positive association between deprivation and mortality was found for each type of cancer, but there was no significant association for male colorectal cancer (relative risk (RR) 1.00; 95% credible interval (CI) 0.99-1.02), pancreatic cancer (RR: 1.01; 95%CI 0.98-1.04), and female colorectal cancer incidence (RR: 1.01; 95%CI 0.99-1.03), whereas a negative association for breast cancer (RR: 0.98; 95%CI 0.96-0.99) was found. Disease mapping analyses showed only partial overlap between areas of high incidence and mortality, often independent of deprivation. Our results highlight not only the diverse relationship between cancer burden and deprivation, but also the inconsistent relationship between cancer incidence and mortality, pointing to areas with populations that require special public health attention.

The role of phagocytic cells in aging: insights from vertebrate and invertebrate models.

While the main role of phagocytic scavenger cells consists of the neutralization and elimination of pathogens, they also keep the body fluids clean by taking up and breaking down waste material. Since a build-up of waste is thought to contribute to the aging process, these cells become particularly pertinent in the research field of aging. Nevertheless, a direct link between their scavenging functions and the aging process has yet to be established. Integrative approaches involving various model organisms hold promise to elucidate this potential, but are lagging behind since the diversity and evolutionary relationship of these cells across animal species remain unclear. In this perspective, we review the current knowledge associating phagocytic scavenger cells with aging in vertebrate and invertebrate animals, as well as put forward important questions for further exploration. Additionally, we highlight future challenges and propose a constructive approach for tackling them.

Use of primary healthcare services before and after specialized rehabilitation and its relation to changes in health and functioning: a longitudinal cohort study.

To examine patients' use of primary healthcare (PHC) before and after specialized rehabilitation and its relation with self-reported health and functioning. Longitudinal cohort study. 451 rehabilitation patients. Register data were used to measure the frequency of visits to the general practitioner (GP) and physiotherapist (PT) in PHC 3 years before and after rehabilitation. Patients reported health (EQ-VAS) and functioning (SF-36) before rehabilitation and at 1 and 3 years after. Data are described for the total study cohort and subgroups with musculoskeletal disease (MSD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). There was an increase in GP and PT visits preceding rehabilitation and a gradual decrease thereafter. An exception was GP visits among patients with CVD, with few diagnosis-specific visits before but an increase after. Lower levels of health and functioning tended to be related to more frequent GP and PT visits. An indication of clinically important improvement was found among those with frequent GP visits in the MSD subgroup, and among those with 1-2 GP visits in the CVD subgroup. The diverse relationship between health and functioning, and the use of PHC services at follow-up, may imply that additional factors besides healthcare use explain long-term improvement following rehabilitation.

Team informational resources, information elaboration, and team innovation: Diversity mindset moderating functional diversity and boundary spanning scouting effects

AbstractThe knowledge integration perspective on team innovation holds that information elaboration – the exchange, discussion, and integration of task‐relevant information and perspectives – is the core team process driving team innovation. Factors reflecting the informational resources the team can draw on through information elaboration therefore are important influences on team innovation. In this respect, team innovation research points to team functional diversity and to team boundary spanning scouting to acquire information from outside the team. Team innovation research also makes clear that informational resources (as reflected in functional diversity and boundary spanning scouting) do not guarantee team information elaboration, and that identifying moderation in this relationship is particularly valuable. Building on this state of the science, we focus on the moderating role of the team diversity mindset – members' shared understanding of the importance of information elaboration for team performance – in the relationships of team functional diversity and boundary spanning scouting with information elaboration and team innovation. A multi‐wave and multi‐source survey of N = 215 teams involved in knowledge work in various Chinese organizations supported our research model for team boundary spanning scouting but not for team functional diversity.

Genetic diversity, population structure, and phylogenetic relationships of a widespread East Asia herb, Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk. (Apiaceae) based on genomic SNP data generated by dd-RAD sequencing.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) represent the most prevalent form of genomic polymorphism and are extensively used in population genetics research. Using dd-RAD sequencing, a high-throughput sequencing method, we investigated the genome-level diversity, population structure, and phylogenetic relationships among three morphological forms of the widely distributed taxon Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk., which is native to East Asia. Our study aimed to assess the species status of C. japonica according to its genetic structure and genetic diversity patterns among 66 naturally distributed populations, comprising 26C. japonica f. japonica, 36C. japonica f. dissecta (Y. Yabe) Hara and 4C. japonica f. pinnatisecta S. L. Liou accessions. Based on genomic SNP data generated by dd-RAD sequencing, we conducted genetic diversity, principal component, neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic, admixture clustering, and population differentiation analyses. The findings revealed the following: (1) 5,39,946 unlinked, high-quality SNPs, with mean π, H O, H E and F IS values of 0.062, 0.066, 0.043 and -0.014, respectively, were generated; (2) population divergence was unaffected by isolation through distance; (3) six main distinct regions corresponding to geographic locations and exhibiting various levels of genetic diversity were identified; (4) pairwise F ST analysis showed significant (P < 0.05) population differentiation in 0%-14% of populations among the six regions after sequential Bonferroni correction; and (5) three migration events (historical gene flow) indicated east‒west directionality. Moreover, contemporary gene flow analysis using Jost's D, Nei's G ST, and Nm values highlighted the middle latitude area of East Asia as a significant contributor to genetic structuring in C. japonica. Overall, our study elucidates the relatively low genetic differentiation and population structure of C. japonica across East Asia, further enhancing our understanding of plant lineage diversification in the Sino-Japanese Floristic Region.

Exploring human-nature relationships in academic literature on the nitrogen cycle

ABSTRACT The nitrogen (N) cycle is a familiar concept. As is the much simplified, often diagrammatic, representation commonly used to illustrate the scale, importance and interconnectedness of this global cycle that links air, water, rocks and living beings. However, in this representation, humans are often presented as a seemingly minor entity or not explicitly shown at all. This can obscure the idea that humanity is both a direct beneficiary of the nitrogen cycle (through food and resources) and an increasingly significant influence on its function. This study sought to understand how diverse Human-Nature relationships (HNR) are expressed in recent academic literature on the nitrogen cycle. A sample of peer-reviewed literature, containing explicit and inferred examples of HNR and the nitrogen cycle, was analysed using two approaches: 1) network analysis, identifying and illustrating all quantifiable links made between components of the nitrogen cycle, and 2) content analysis to understand how different kinds of terminology were being used to describe relationships between components in the cycle. The network analysis revealed diverse links between ‘human’ and ‘non-human nature’. The content analysis found some explicit use of relational terms, most commonly ‘depend*’. Both approaches highlighted strongly reciprocal links within the ‘human’ realm and the explicit centrality in which this is held across the corpus. We demonstrate the utility of combining quantitative and qualitative analysis to understand nuanced relationships in the nitrogen cycle and explore the utility this has to increase the acknowledgement and appreciation of HNR in science communication and science-policy interface work.

Genetic Diversity and Phylogenetic Relationships of Capsicum frutescens in the Asia–Pacific Region: The Pacific Dispersal Route

AbstractCapsicum peppers are among the oldest domesticated crops in the Americas. Columbus introduced them to Europe, from where they spread to the Far East via Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. However, the details of how Capsicum peppers were introduced into the Asia–Pacific region and their subsequent dispersal remain unknown. Therefore, we investigated the genetic diversity and relationships of Capsicum frutescens in the Asia–Pacific region through restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) and the sequencing of a variable chloroplast genome locus. The RAD-seq analysis showed that three accessions from Japan are most closely related to those from the Americas and Micronesia, and are distant from most of those from islands and continental Southeast Asia. Although C. frutescens has two chloroplast haplotypes (T and TC), only the T type was found in the Americas and Japan, whereas both types were distributed in other regions. Therefore, we postulate that some C. frutescens accessions were introduced into the Asia–Pacific region from the Americas via the Pacific dispersal route, whereas only the T type was introduced into Japan. Evidence for this Pacific dispersal route of C. frutescens could lead to a reconsideration of the dispersal routes of other crops native to the Americas.

ENTRE RUÍNAS E SILÊNCIOS: AMORALIDADE X DOGMAS RELIGIOSOS EM SEM GENTILEZA, DE FUTHI NTSHINGILA

We know that violence caused by gender and social inequalities is historically constituted as a ‘plastered’ element in the most diverse relationships and cultures. In this way, this work proposes an investigative analysis of the female representation of the protagonist character, Mvelo, in the novel Sem Gentileza (2016) by South African writer Futhi Ntshingila, with the aim of understanding how the writer aesthetically describes these inequalities in the narrative, especially in the context of violence against women, highlighting, for this section, the South African context of black women. From this perspective, we will discuss themes that we consider pertinent, such as religious dogma and the free will of the moral act, which are absent in the characters that make up the narrative, and we will also consider the necropolitics latent in the social context of the characters. In order to carry out this descriptive analysis from a phenomenological point of view and establish a coherent view of the discussions and characters, we will use the studies of Biko (1990), Baur (2000), Hick (2018), Revel (2005), Mbembe (2016), Fanon (2022), Hill-Collins (2019), Hooks (2020), Arendt (1997, 2004), Almeida and Teles (2012) and Saffioti (2004, 2015) among other scholars and theorists as theoretical anchors. Methodologically, this is a qualitative, bibliographical study with a descriptive analytical approach. Through this description, as a preliminary result, we conjecture that the way Ntshingila delineates violence in her poetic texture produces a certain ‘subtlety’ for such grotesque moments.

The impact of anthropogenic pressures on microbial diversity and river multifunctionality relationships on a global scale

Conserving biodiversity is crucial for maintaining essential ecosystem functions, as indicated by the positive relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. However, the impacts of declining biodiversity on ecosystem functions in response to mounting human pressures remain uncertain. This uncertainty arises from the complexity of trade-offs among human activities, climate change, river properties, and biodiversity, which have not been comprehensively addressed collectively. Here, we provide evidence that river biodiversity was significantly and positively associated with multifunctionality and contributed to key ecosystem functions such as microbially driven water purification, leaf litter decomposition and pathogen control. However, human pressure led to abrupt changes in microbial diversity and river multifunctionality relationships at a human pressure value of 0.5. In approximately 30 % (N = 58) of countries globally, the ratio of area above this threshold exceeded the global average (∼11 %), especially in Europe. Results show that human pressure affected ecosystem functions through direct effects and interactive effects. We provide more direct evidence that the nonadditive effects triggered by prevailing human pressure impact the multifunctionality of rivers globally. Under high levels of human stress, the beneficial effects of biodiversity on nutrient cycling, carbon storage, gross primary productivity, leaf litter decomposition, and pathogen control tend to diminish. Our findings highlight that considering interactions between human pressure and local abiotic and biotic factors is key for understanding the fate of river ecosystems under climate change and increasing human pressure.

New Myzostomids (Annelida) in Symbiosis with Feather Stars in the Shallow Waters of the South China Sea (Hainan Island).

This research delves into the molecular and morphological characteristics of myzostomid worms associated with common shallow-water feather stars (Echinodermata: Crinoidea: Comatulidae) in the coastal waters near Sanya, Hainan Island. Through the examination of specimens collected at depths of up to 10 m using scuba diving techniques, we describe three new species (Myzostoma ordinatum sp. nov., M. scopus sp. nov., and M. solare sp. nov.) and report the first record of Myzostoma polycyclus Atkins, 1927 in the South China Sea. The absence of overlap with the seven previously documented Myzostomida species in the shallow waters of Hong Kong and Shenzhen reveals significant gaps in our understanding of marine biodiversity in the South China Sea. These findings, combined with an analysis of available molecular data, underscore the potential existence of unexplored and diverse symbiotic relationships among marine invertebrates within the region.

Recent research progress of soil nematode ecology in China.

Soil nematodes are a crucial component of belowground ecosystems. Soil nematode ecology, the studies of community distribution, structural composition, ecological functions, and interaction mechanisms with environment, has always been a hot spot in soil biology research. We systematically elaborated soil nematodes' high diversity and various diet, their advantages as bioindicator and model organisms, and their roles in biological control, ecological functions and soil health. Then, we reviewed the research progress of soil nematode ecology in China, including molecular biology identification methods, responses to global changes, food web structure and function, aboveground and belowground diversity relationship, and large-scale diversity pattern. We put forward the development trend of soil nematology, focusing on the high-throughput sequencing technology in nematode identification and quantification, the necessity of establishing a universal analysis platform to promote soil nematode research, and the importance of strengthening large-scale soil nematode survey.

Addressing Urban Management Challenges for Sustainable Development: Analyzing the Impact of Neighborhood Deprivation on Crime Distribution in Chicago

Urban crime prevention remains a critical challenge intertwined with socioeconomic disparities. This study investigates the spatial nexus between urban deprivation and crime decline in Chicago from 2015 to 2022, addressing the question: How do changes in neighborhood deprivation relate to crime reduction patterns? Using comprehensive crime incident and census tract Area Deprivation Index (ADI) data, this study conducted exploratory spatial analysis, regression modeling, and local bivariate relationship analysis. The findings reveal persistent hotspots of concentrated deprivation on Chicago’s south and west sides, alongside a general citywide crime decline. However, the current research uncovered significant spatial heterogeneity in both deprivation patterns and crime reduction, challenging the achievement of equitable public safety outcomes. Surprisingly, while crime incidents in 2015 and 2022 significantly predicted crime change, ADI scores were not statistically significant predictors in our regression model. Local bivariate analysis exposed diverse relationships between ADI changes and crime rate changes across neighborhoods, with 72.2% of census tracts showing no statistically significant relationship. This underscores the complexity of urban crime dynamics and the importance of local context in understanding these patterns. Our research contributes a nuanced understanding of the intricate relationship between urban deprivation and crime patterns, providing valuable insights for policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and urban planners. These findings highlight the need for integrated, long-term strategies that address both crime prevention and socioeconomic disparities, ultimately fostering safer, more equitable urban environments and informing evidence-based interventions tailored to specific neighborhood contexts.

Exploration of the Dayak Onion (Eleutherine palmifolia (L.) Merr) in the Borderlands of North Kalimantan, Indonesia

The Dayak onion (Eleutherine palmifolia (L.) Merr) is a plant endemic to Kalimantan, Indonesia, known for its medicinal properties. This study explores the distribution and morphological diversity of Dayak onions in the border areas of North Kalimantan, encompassing Tana Tidung, Bulungan, Malinau Regencies, and Tarakan City. Fifteen unique accessions were collected, and their morphological traits were characterized both qualitatively and quantitatively. The distribution analysis revealed an even spread of Dayak onions across the studied regions. The diversity analysis, using the Shannon-Wiener index, indicated variations in certain quantitative traits like plant height and root length, while qualitative traits like leaf and bulb characteristics remained largely uniform. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified key morphological characters contributing to the observed diversity, and cluster analysis revealed kinship relationships among the accessions, with some groups showing high similarity coefficients. This research provides valuable insights into the distribution, diversity, and genetic relationships of Dayak onions in North Kalimantan, contributing to potential agricultural and conservation applications.

A “set” of ancient bronze bells excavated in Changsha, Hunan Province, China

This article explores the criteria used to ascertain whether or not, and how, ancient Chinese bronze bells might form sets of musical instruments, thus clarifying their original intended use by ancient musicians. The focus is on ten bells unearthed from Changsha city in Hunan province in China, which date to the twelfth century BCE. A range of diverse relationships between these bells provide valuable insights that can be explored. Debate is ongoing among music historians regarding the nature of the bells. Some argue that the ten bells do not constitute a set of musical instruments because their designs and acoustic properties lack sufficient similarity and correlation. Conversely, another group of historians suggests that nine of the ten bells could indeed be seen as a set, but with the tenth bell being an outlier due to its distinct design. The third group of historians contends that the ten bells should be considered a musical set because of their organized sequence of consecutive semi-tones, while the design differences of the bells are less significant and can be overlooked if we focus on their musical functions. In this study, we scrutinize the assumptions made by these music historians, including their definitions of design similarity and the sequence of progressive pitches. Further previously overlooked criteria, such as the geographical proximity of these ten bells and others found in neighboring areas, and the incremental changes in the bell sizes, are also considered. Through the use of these criteria we aim to explore a wide range of relationships between ancient Chinese bells and to reassess what other new evidence the bells may offer to the study of ancient Chinese musical concepts. The concept of the chromatic scale discovered by ancient Chinese musicians was embodied on the casting of bronze bells.

On the nature of social interactions and cognition in learning communities

Whether explicitly used as a research aim or implicitly discussed as an outcome, the concept of community is central for the networked learning research as it allows networked learning researchers to study how people perceive the networked environment as a space, wherein the members can develop relationships among one another. The underlying premise for this work is that it is erroneous to assume a learning community is a unified concept, functioning in the same way for everyone under same circumstances. Taking the contextual factors into account, this research questions the characteristics of a community that are related to learning. I explore how different types of relationships among members of a learning community are related to learning. In particular, I conceptualise the concept of community using social capital theory. Since the central tenet of social capital theory is that different relationships within networks of people hold different values, I argue that it can inform the ways by which the perceived level of learning is understood with respect to interaction patterns. The findings suggest that both distributed–diverse communications and strong–close communications are manifest in learning. However, the impact of diverse relationships on learning is considerably larger and stronger compared to denser relationships. The implications are discussed.