Reduce Unit Costs Research Articles

Strategic forecasting of complex production system - railway transport

The paper considers conditions and methods for developing a strategic forecast for the technical and economic state of the worldwide and Russian railway transport for a period of 30-50 years or more. The analysis was made on changes in the state of infrastructure, rolling stock, organization of train traffic and shunting work, nature of the management of the transportation process from 1825 to the present. It is established that many quantitative and qualitative indicators of its technical and technological state have improved during this period many times and by orders of magnitude. This allowed the railway transport to ensure a high level of competitiveness in the transport system of the world, including our country, despite the emergence of all new modes of transport. At the same time, some such indicators are now close to the maximum possible and will not be able to grow rapidly in the future. It is accepted that in the development of strategic fore-casts of the technical and technological state of complex (large) production systems, it is necessary to determine the most important parameters, which in the long term can be improved many times substantially, which in the complex system under consideration will achieve a significant reduction in costs, and even increase their competitiveness. The main trends in the development of railways for a strategic long-term period are determined, taking into account the support of the development of its technical and technological state for the achievements of fundamental and branch science. These trends take into account both known solutions, for example, HS operation and new solutions. The implementation of the proposals will allow the railways to achieve a reduction in unit costs (per unit of transport output), preserve and increase their competitiveness in the constantly developing transport market.

Worse than Baumol's disease: The implications of labor productivity, contracting out, and unionization on transit operation costs

Unit costs measured as bus operating costs per vehicle mile have increased considerably above the inflation rate in recent decades in most transit agencies in the United States. This paper examines the impact of (lack of) productivity growth, union bargaining power, and contracting out on cost escalation. We draw from a 17-year (1997–2014) and a 415-bus transit agency panel with 5780 observations by type of operation (directly operated by the agency or contracted out). We have three main findings: first, the unit cost increase in the transit sector is far worse than what economic theory predicts for industries with low productivity growth. Second, contracting out tends to reduce unit costs, and the results suggest that the costs savings from private operations can be only partly explained by lower wages in the private sector. Interestingly, we find that the cost savings from contracting out are larger when the transit agency also directly operates part of the total transit service. However, while overall unit costs are lower in contracted services, cost growth in large private bus operators is no different than cost growth in large public transit operators. Third, unique transit labor laws that lead to union bargaining power are a likely driver of the unit cost growth above inflation. Overall, these factors reflect inherent characteristics of the bus transit sector, such as the nature of low productivity growth and union legislative power related to the need for public subsidy. They drive increases in both transit fares and public subsidy at rates higher than inflation, and play an important role in the deterioration of transit agencies’ financial sustainability.

Deformation and optics based structural design and cost optimization of cylindrical reflector system

It is a stated goal of renewable energy research to make solar power reach price parity with power from fossil fuel based power plants. Solar-thermal plants are capital intensive and do not benefit strongly from economies of scale. Hence, reducing unit costs is the most effective path to an economically attractive technology. Conventional parabolic trough systems have numerous limitations not least of which are the expensive mirror and support requirements required to maintain high precision in the optics. Further, the flexible hosing necessary to enable a moving receiver leads to excessively high pressure drops and pumping costs. While linear Fresnel systems address much of these shortcomings, they require accurate field alignment of a large number of independent reflecting elements leading to complex maintenance issues. Here we propose a relatively simple design with a small number of reflecting elements with a stationary receiver which is facile to fabricate, transport and install while also be far most cost effective. We also present a structural cost optimization together with optical ray tracer analysis using in-house ray tracer code. The concept has been validated with experiments. The proposed optimum design can be considered as a step toward achieving the economically attractive line concentrator technology.

Theoretical approaches to creation of robotic coal mines based on the synthesis of simulation technologies

Methodological approaches to theoretical substantiation of the structure and parameters of robotic coal mines are outlined. The results of mathematical and numerical modeling revealed the features of manifestation of geomechanical and gas dynamic processes in the conditions of robotic mines. Technological solutions for the design and manufacture of technical means for robotic mine are adopted using the method of economic and mathematical modeling and in accordance with the current regulatory documents. For a comparative performance evaluation of technological schemes of traditional and robotic mines, methods of cognitive modeling and matrix search for subsystem elements in the synthesis of a complex geotechnological system are applied. It is substantiated that the process of technical re-equipment of a traditional mine with a phased transition to a robotic mine will reduce unit costs by almost 1.5 times with a significant social effect due to a reduction in the number of personnel engaged in hazardous work.

Continuous and scalable polymer capsule processing for inertial fusion energy target shell fabrication using droplet microfluidics

High specification, polymer capsules, to produce inertial fusion energy targets, were continuously fabricated using surfactant-free, inertial centralisation, and ultrafast polymerisation, in a scalable flow reactor. Laser-driven, inertial confinement fusion depends upon the interaction of high-energy lasers and hydrogen isotopes, contained within small, spherical and concentric target shells, causing a nuclear fusion reaction at ~150 M°C. Potentially, targets will be consumed at ~1 M per day per reactor, demanding a 5000x unit cost reduction to ~$0.20, and is a critical, key challenge. Experimentally, double emulsions were used as templates for capsule-shells, and were formed at 20 Hz, on a fluidic chip. Droplets were centralised in a dynamic flow, and their shapes both evaluated, and mathematically modeled, before subsequent shell solidification. The shells were photo-cured individually, on-the-fly, with precisely-actuated, millisecond-length (70 ms), uniform-intensity UV pulses, delivered through eight, radially orchestrated light-pipes. The near 100% yield rate of uniform shells had a minimum 99.0% concentricity and sphericity, and the solidification processing period was significantly reduced, over conventional batch methods. The data suggest the new possibility of a continuous, on-the-fly, IFE target fabrication process, employing sequential processing operations within a continuous enclosed duct system, which may include cryogenic fuel-filling, and shell curing, to produce ready-to-use IFE targets.

Are users better-off with new transit lines?

This paper studies the entry of a new competitor in a public transport network. Competitors for existing rail can be long distance buses but also the vanpool services. These new lines decrease the ridership of the existing lines and increase waiting time for its passengers. A stylized network model is used to study this potential vicious cycle. We derive sufficient conditions for this negative effect to increase overall public transport costs. The new line is only beneficial when there are relatively many users that want to use the new direct line or when the unit cost reduction is sufficiently large. Our result raises concerns with respect to the decentralized management of transit systems.

Development of disposable membrane hydrophones for a frequency range from 1 MHz to 10 MHz

A method for fabricating disposable membrane hydrophones is presented. The disposable hydrophones are intended for onetime use in such damaging environments as chemically contaminating fluids and high-amplitude (peak amplitude ∼100MPa) shock wave fields, where the use of commercial membrane hydrophones is not recommended. Fabrication of a hydrophone is done using only off-the-shelf components and hand tools, which translates into ease of fabrication and orders-of-magnitude reduction in unit cost. In particular, poling and sputtering, the two processes that are chiefly responsible for the cost and difficulty associated with the conventional fabrication method, are replaced with the use of pre-poled polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) films and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-coated aluminum foils, respectively. Despite the seemingly crude construction, these disposable hydrophones can exhibit voltage sensitivity response that compares favorably with that of commercial hydrophones. For example, one prototype having a 2mm×2mm active element shows the end-of-cable voltage sensitivity of −270 (±1.9) dB re 1V/μPa over the frequency range of 1–10MHz.

Toxicity characteristics and durability of concrete containing coal ash as substitute for cement and river sand

The main aim of this study was to investigate the toxicity characteristics and durability of concrete containing bottom ash (BA) and fly ash (FA), as partial or total replacement of fine aggregate and Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), respectively. Concrete mixtures were prepared containing 0, 20, 50, 75 and 100% of BA as a substitute for river sand and 20% of FA as a replacement for OPC. Tests carried out were Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP), sulfate and acid attack (change in compressive strength, microstructure and weight) and elevated temperature effects (loss in compressive strength and mass as well as change in pulse velocity). Results showed that submerging coal ash concrete (CAC) mixtures in 5% sulfuric acid solution resulted in less reduction of compressive strength and mass loss compare to that of the control concrete. Moreover, sulfate resistance tests on concrete mixtures indicated that there were no mass loss and no reduction in compressive strength of all the mixtures after submersion in 5% magnesium sulfate solution. CAC showed higher weight loss and greater compressive strength reduction at elevated temperatures. From TCLP results, it is concluded that none of the elements leached higher than the maximum concentration of contaminants for toxicity characteristics. It indicates that transportation, disposal and utilization of BA and FA as clean construction material’s replacement could be utilized to reduce their environmental problems, increase efficiency and reduced unit cost production of concrete.

Designand Implementation of Networked Control SystemviaEthernetforSelf Excited Induction Generator Using OPC Server

Induction generators are increasingly being used in nonconventional energy systems such as wind, micro/mini hydro, etc. The advantages of using an induction generator instead of a synchronous generator are well known. Some of them are reduced unit cost and size, ruggedness, brushless (in squirrel cage construction), absence of separate dc source, ease of maintenance, self-protection against severe overloads and short circuits, etc. In isolated systems, squirrel cage induction generators with capacitor excitation, known as self-excited induction generators (SEIGs), are very popular. Remotely control applications over a wide area had been commonly used in the industries today. One of the common applications requires remote control and monitoring is output voltage control of SEIGs supplied insensitive frequency loads. Drive system has various types of controller, in order to perform some actions such as control the speed to control the output voltage of SEIGs, switching On or Off loads supplied by the generator. This control system can be done by Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), and with the rise of the technology, Ethernet module will be used in order to achieve the remotecontrol system. Plus the PLC today can be controlled not only using its original software, but 3rd party software as well, such as LabVIEW). LabVIEW is a human machine interfaces design software that is user friendly. It can be easily communicate with different hardware using OLE for Process Control (OPC) server.

Innovative integration relations opportunityfor development of Polish agribusiness and increase competitiveness of the economy

The main objective of this paper is to present the concepts, principles of operation and the benefits of effective functioning of innovative integration links, which are the structure of the cluster. The study attempts to evaluate the impact of these forms of links to regional and local development, indicate the conditions for the development of these compounds in the context of the processes of globalization, as well as their impact on the growth of innovation and competitiveness of the economy. Due to the multifaceted problems taken, as well as the limited volume of the article, the focus is mainly on some issues related to clustering. Considerations supported by the results of own research, conducted in the province of Podkarpackie. The surveyed farmers indicated the main factors encouraging them to enter into the structure of the cluster, ie.: a reduction of unit costs of production, the possibility of contracting the purchase of products, the ability to increase the scale of production and joint sales and shared business risks. While the representatives of processing companies among the assets to encourage the accession exchanged the following: greater competitiveness cluster entities, a significant reduction in transport costs, the possibility of co-financing of innovative activity, faster flow of information and knowledge and geographical proximity to suppliers/customers. Operation and expansion of these relations should be a key element of competitiveness and intensifying the development of not only individual entities or regions, but also the entire economy.

Biobank sustainability: current status and future prospects

Biobank sustainability: current status and future prospects Marika Doucet,1 Martin Yuille,2 Luke Georghiou,3 Georges Dagher1 1Biobanques, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris, France; 2Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research, Division of Population Health, Health Services Research and Primary Care, University of Manchester, 3Manchester Institute of Innovation Research, Manchester Business School, Manchester, UK Abstract: Biobanks play an important role in biomedical research that aims to understand cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the development of diseases, and to improve interventions for human health. Despite financial support from mixed public funding streams, long-term sustainability of public biobanks remains a major concern. Review of the literature demonstrates that total cost-recovery strategies, as well as commercialization of research results or derived products, may not represent the best way to reach and maintain sustainability. Public biobanks require support by long-term investment and commitment from public and governmental sources, as well as support from industrial users. In this regard, this study suggests strategies to improve long-term sustainability, such as sample-sharing and biobank consolidation to reduce unit costs, embedding public biobanks in health care systems, and working to implement global funding mechanisms. Keywords: health, research infrastructure, mixed-model funding, cost recovery, finance

Emission and cost effects of training for construction equipment operators

Purpose – It is postulated that operator-dependent factors have a substantial impact on the fuel consumption and emissions of heavy-duty construction vehicles, such that by adopting different operator practices, savings in fuel used and lower emissions and costs can be achieved. Accordingly, the purpose of this paper is to examine the emission and cost effects of a driver-training programme aimed at fuel efficiency and construction truck operators. Design/methodology/approach – A study was conducted on an urban excavation involving truck-and-trailer vehicles, serviced by an excavator, over an approximately 50 km trafficked urban circuit. Field observations, before and after training, and including those on a control truck operator, gave fuel usage, emissions data, speed, travel times, routing, production and operational costs. Findings – Compared to baseline values, trained drivers saw a reduction in their fuel consumption by an average of 8.5 per cent, reducing to 7.7 per cent after several weeks following training. Importantly, this occurred without increased travel time or lost production. Research limitations/implications – The number of drivers participating in the research was dictated by the nature of the project involved. A larger sample, and research involving a closer study of braking, acceleration and gearshift behaviour, would help confirm this paper’s results and provide further insight. Practical implications – The paper demonstrates quantitative benefits (reduced unit emissions and reduced unit costs) associated with construction equipment operator training. Originality/value – The research is original, being the first related to driver training of heavy-duty construction equipment and incorporating production measurements, the first involving a study of equipment operators unaware that they were being observed, and the first involving a control.

A More-Rigorous Development Framework for Unconventional Reservoirs

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 171913, “From a Standard to a More-Rigorous Development Framework for Unconventional Reservoirs,” by I. Colombo, E. Spelta, D. Giamminonni, S.D. Russo, F. Rotelli, and M. Rotondi, Eni, prepared for the 2014 Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, Abu Dhabi, 10–13 November. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Major oil companies have been struggling as they attempt to make the unconventional business a profitable one. Indeed, the strategy of building an unconventional portfolio by means of mergers and acquisitions is not providing a satisfactory return on investment. This paper describes how seismic reservoir integration, advanced production analysis, and accurate nanoscale and 3D full-field simulations may address profitability issues and help oil companies to be more efficient in developing unconventional portfolios. Introduction While, from approximately 2008–2011, independents were building and developing their US unconventional portfolio, majors were trying to enter the same business by means of multibillion-dollar mergers and acquisitions. The majors were not fast enough to be able to repay the premium for this endeavor as a consequence of the combination of a low- margin-profit type of business and hydrocarbon-price evolution. Majors tend to be essentially process- driven organizations; therefore, they are not structured for rapid-decision-making approaches. Furthermore, they quickly align to the general concept of thinking about unconventional plays as if they are statistical ones. Their initial main effort was essentially made for unit cost reduction, whereas technology innovation has become a principal focus currently. Key plays have experienced an impressive production growth. If, on one hand, the system is improving its efficiency, on the other, the incremental production is also associated with a huge increase in the average number of fracturing stages per well. Few attempts were made to optimize wells and fracturing-stage placement by applying a more-scientific approach. Indeed, many sources estimate that only 40 to 60% of fracturing stages contribute to well production when they are placed on the basis of an equal-spacing strategy.

Inter-Municipal Cooperation in Waste Management: The Case of Poland

Abstract This article seeks to present the scale of inter-municipal cooperation in waste management in Poland in the light of the role of three key factors of cooperation. The first shows spatial regularities in the distribution of inter-municipal bodies involved in waste management in Poland, both in the system of voivodeships and historical-cultural regions. The second is institutional conditions confirming the scale of the Europeanisation of public policies taking place in Poland. It embraces the implementation of the EU legal framework in the Polish legal system and the cooperative behaviour of municipalities as a result of those changes. The third is a negative verification of the assumptions of the economic theory upholding the role of financial motivation in establishing cooperation (looking for savings and economies of scale to reduce unit cost); the presented results do not corroborate this type of motivation.

New GPU computing algorithm for wind load uncertainty analysis on high-rise systems

In recent years, the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) has become a competitive computing technology in comparison with the standard Central Processing Unit (CPU) technology due to reduced unit cost, energy and computing time. This paper describes the derivation and implementation of GPU-based algorithms for the analysis of wind loading uncertainty on high-rise systems, in line with the research field of probability-based wind engineering. The study begins by presenting an application of the GPU technology to basic linear algebra problems to demonstrate advantages and limitations. Subsequently, Monte-Carlo integration and synthetic generation of wind turbulence are examined. Finally, the GPU architecture is used for the dynamic analysis of three high-rise structural systems under uncertain wind loads. In the first example the fragility analysis of a single degree-of-freedom structure is illustrated. Since fragility analysis employs sampling-based Monte Carlo simulation, it is feasible to distribute the evaluation of different random parameters among different GPU threads and to compute the results in parallel. In the second case the fragility analysis is carried out on a continuum structure, i.e., a tall building, in which double integration is required to evaluate the generalized turbulent wind load and the dynamic response in the frequency domain. The third example examines the computation of the generalized coupled wind load and response on a tall building in both along-wind and cross-wind directions. It is concluded that the GPU can perform computational tasks on average 10 times faster than the CPU.

Analyzing the Tradeoffs Between Economies of Scale, Time-Value of Money, and Flexibility in Design Under Uncertainty: Study of Centralized Versus Decentralized Waste-to-Energy Systems

This paper presents and applies a simulation-based methodology to assess the value of flexible decentralized engineering systems design (i.e., the ability to flexibly expand the capacity in multiple sites over time and space) under uncertainty. This work differs from others by analyzing explicitly the tradeoffs between economies of scale (EoS)—which favors designing large capacity upfront to reduce unit cost and accommodate high anticipated demand—and the time value of money—which favors deferring capacity investments to the future and deploying smaller modules to reduce unit cost. The study aims to identify the best strategies to design and deploy the capacity of complex engineered systems over time and improve their economic lifecycle performance in the face of uncertainty by exploiting the idea of flexibility. This study is illustrated using a waste-to-energy (WTE) system operated in Singapore. The results show that a decentralized design with the real option to expand the capacity in different locations and times improves the expected net present value (ENPV) by more than 30% under the condition of EoS α = 0.8 and discount rate λ = 8%, as compared to a fixed centralized design. The results also indicate that a flexible decentralized design outperforms other rigid designs under certain circumstances since it not only reduces transportation costs but also takes advantage of flexibility, such as deferring investment and avoiding unnecessary capacity deployment. The modeling framework and results help designers and managers better compare centralized and decentralized design alternatives facing significant uncertainty. The proposed method helps them analyze the value of flexibility (VOF) in small-scale urban environments, while considering explicitly the tradeoffs between EoS and the time-value of money.

Cost engineering as the basis for integration of the processes of planning, financing and pricing in investment and construction activity

Current trends in the science and practice of construction indicate the ability to control the economic means of phenomena and processes occurring in the area of investment and construction activities, towards the realization of sustainable development goals. In this regard, the subsystem of planning, funding and pricing implement the problems of resource maintenance of the building complex on the hierarchy levels, the maintenance of homeostatic equilibrium of the system, as well as measure the effectiveness and profitability of production and ensuring processes. The purpose of the article is the search for capability to determine the impact, which are the change in prices for certain types of material and technical resources or reduction of unit costs. Our results are aimed at creating a model for cost control (costs, profit) of an investment and construction project and the development of theoretical foundations of value engineering. Another result of the article is an equation with which you can simulate the effects of intensity changes of individual streams, such as pay increase under certain conditions of construction, changes in the income of an enterprises and other. The features of the article include the recording of the construction hierarchy levels at each time point which depends on the concentration of a certain amount of labor, equipment and the volume of material resources, an optimal distribution between objects and areas of activity, reducing material costs and improving productivity constant. In this case, not only an objective necessity is considered, but also crucial prerequisite for sustainable development. The use of these factors leads to a decrease in the cost of construction of the object as a result of productivity growth and is reflected in the implementation of the final price of construction products.

Reusing industrial robots to achieve sustainability in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the importance of redesigning, reusing, remanufacturing, recovering, recycling and reducing (6R) to sustainable manufacturing and discuss the general procedure to reconfigure robots. Two critical challenges in adopting industrial robots in small and medium-sized enterprise (SMEs) are flexibility and cost, as the number of tasks of the same type can be limited because of the size of an SME. The challenges can be alleviated by 6R. The 6R processes allow a robot to adopt new tasks, increase its utilization rate and reduce unit costs of products. Design/methodology/approach There is no shortcut to implement sustainable manufacturing. All of the manufacturing resources in a system should be planned optimally to reduce waste and maximize the utilization rates of resources. In this paper, modularization and reconfiguration are emphasized to implement 6R processes in sustainable manufacturing; robots are especially taken into consideration as core functional modules in the system. Modular architecture makes it feasible to integrate robots with low-cost customized modules for various tasks for the high utilization rates. A case study is provided to show the feasibility. Findings Finding the ways to reuse manufacturing resources could bring significant competitiveness to an SME, in the sense that sophisticated machines and tools, such as robots, can be highly utilized even in a manufacturing environment with low or medium product volumes. The concepts of modularization and 6R processes can be synergized to achieve this goal. Research limitations/implications The authors propose the strategy to enhance the utilization rates of core manufacturing resources using modular architecture and 6R practice. The axiomatic design theory can be applied as the theoretical fundamental to guide the 6R processes; however, a universal solution in the implementation is not available. The solutions have to be tailored to specific SMEs, and the solutions should vary with respect to time. Practical implications To operate a sustainable manufacturing system, a continuous design effort is required to reconfigure existing resources and enhance their capabilities to fulfill new tasks in the dynamic environment. Social implications The authors focus on the importance of sustainable manufacturing to modern society, and they achieve this goal by reusing robots as system components in different applications. Originality/value Sustainable manufacturing has attracted a great deal of attention, although the operable guidance for system implementation is scarce. The presented work has thrown some light in this research area. The 6R concept has been introduced in a modular system to maximize the utilizations of critical manufacturing resources. It is particularly advantageous for SMEs to adopt sophisticated robots cost-effectively.

(Invited) Plasma Processes for Emerging Silicon-Based MEMS, NEMS and Packaging Applications

Plasma processes are important for emerging silicon-based micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), nano-electro-mechanical systems (NEMS) and packaging applications. Typically every device has a customised process flow but synergies can be found as most are produced using a 2.5D approach comprising sequential deposition, lithography and etch cycles. Plasma processes are critical in enabling reproducible dry deposition and etch steps during manufacture. Increasingly they are also being adopted in lithography (nanoimprint) and bonding process steps. Plasma processes can be divided into the following broad families: Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)Atomic layer deposition (ALD)Physical vapour deposition (PVD)Etch (physically-driven)Etch (chemically-driven)Surface functionalisation The merits of each plasma technique and their application to emerging devices are discussed. Plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD) of dielectrics and silicon is widely used to enable lower temperature processes than conventional low pressure CVD. Adjustment of deposition parameters can tune stress, chemical resistance, optical properties and wear characteristics for different application requirements. At higher temperatures, plasma-assisted nanogrowth of carbon nanotubes and 2D materials (e.g. graphene) are emerging technologies. Conversely, inductively coupled plasma CVD (ICP-CVD) is attracting interest to enable high quality films at lower temperatures. Plasma-assisted ALD enables thin and uniform layers to be grown in a wider range of materials and, similarly, high quality films at lower processing temperatures. Plasma-based PVD processes include sputtering and ion beam deposition. The former is a standard technique for metallisation. Al-based schemes are typical in the silicon IC industry but different metallisations (e.g. Au or Pt-based) may be required for sensors to give HF resistance or long lifetime contacts. Ion beam deposition is often used for complex multilayer stacks. Physically-driven etch processes require ions to provide enough energy to enable a chemical reaction or to physically break bonds at the wafer surface. Conversely, chemically-driven etch processes spontaneously react but require passivation species to obtain directionality (anisotropy). Ion beam etch processes enable non-volatile materials to be physically etched, such as Vanadium Oxide for uncooled infra red detectors. If the substrate is tilted then non-vertical structures, such as blazed gratings, may be realised. Plasmas may be used to clean surfaces or to create specific surface conditions for subsequent steps. This may be to passivate them, increase bond strengths at low temperatures or to subsequently functionalise them – e.g. adding hydrophobic self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) in MEMS microphones or for bio-probes in medical devices. The process step common to the majority of MEMS devices today is the Bosch silicon etch. This uses a repeating sequence of PECVD deposition, physical etch for directional passivation removal and chemical etch that results in a high rate, highly vertical and highly selective silicon etch - although the cyclic nature results in a characteristic sidewall roughness (scalloping). High aspect ratio structures may be realised and the process is not sensitive to crystal orientation (which limits geometries with anisotropic wet etchants). The majority of physical sensing devices are based on sub-70μm depth features. Trends are towards higher aspect ratios for enhanced performance and smaller footprint whilst maintaining throughput. Increasingly, large cavities are also being etched for subsequent chip or wafer scale packaging and sensor structures may comprise multi-wafer stacks with one of more having through wafer etches (300-750μm). With the move to multi-wafer structures interconnect becomes more challenging. Monolithically integrated devices are key to some high volume MEMS applications; however, the most common approach is to use hybrid integration – allowing separate optimisation of readout IC and MEMS devices. Increasingly solutions are moving towards system-in-a-package (SiP) and system-on-a-chip (SoC) solutions. Through silicon vias (TSVs) are emerging as a key technology for this in both the MEMS and IC industries. Aspect ratios are generally limited to 10-15:1 using the Bosch process in production. This is typically followed by dielectric isolation (e.g. TEOS) and barrier / seed metal layers (e.g. by ALD) prior to electroplating for a low via resistance. At the nanoscale, etching becomes more challenging. The Bosch process is less well suited due to finite sidewall scallop size and reduced rate / selectivity. Typically it is not used below 500nm feature sizes although 100nm features have been demonstrated. A continuously passivating process has smooth sidewalls but a lower rate, selectivity and aspect ratio capability at room temperature. Moving to cryogenic temperatures enables the highest rate, selectivity and aspect ratios to be achieved and can realise trench features down to 10nm. Emerging applications in silicon-based MEMS, NEMS and packaging require a diverse range of plasma processes. With no standardised process flow, individual tools need the flexibility to address multiple different process requirements and enable unit cost reductions by running multiple products to achieve higher volumes. Figure 1

When does marketisation lead to privatisation? Profit-making in English health services after the 2012 Health and Social Care Act

Governments world-wide have attempted to use market mechanisms and privatisation to increase the quality and/or reduce the cost of healthcare. England's Health and Social Care Act 2012 is an attempt to promote privatisation through marketisation in the National Health Service (NHS). While the health policy literature tends to assume that privatisation follows from private-sector entry points, we argue that this is more likely if firms expect to make a profit. This paper examines the link between privatisation and marketisation in England drawing on 32 semi-structured interviews with private-sector and public-sector respondents, campaigners, and other experts conducted 6–10 months after the implementation of the 2012 Act.By generating a theoretical framework on the conditions of profitability we seek a better understanding of the conditions under which marketisation leads to privatisation. We find that significant barriers to profit-making remain after the reforms, including a top-down squeeze on prices, uncertainty in market rules, state dominance of funding and provision, and failures to depoliticise the market. These factors restrict private-sector involvement by frustrating profit-making. Where profits are made they are through reduced unit costs and high volumes by a longstanding incumbent in a particular market segment. This, however, restricts marketisation by reinforcing entry barriers.